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- Historians and sociologists have remarked upon the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes," writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before." Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science. Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. However, discoveries and inventions are inextricably related, in that discoveries lead to inventions, and inventions facilitate discoveries; and since the same phenomenon of multiplicity occurs in relation to both discoveries and inventions, this article lists both multiple discoveries and multiple inventions. (en)
- 历史学及社会学上对于科学界「重复独立发现发明」的现象各有评论。罗伯特·金·莫顿将「重复发现」定义为各自独立开展研究的科学家得出相似的发现的情况。「有些发现是同时的，或者几乎同时的；而有些科学家得出的新发现早在几年前就有人在他不知情的情况下捷足先登。」 重复独立发现发明最常见的例子是微积分、氧气和进化论的发现及发明。微积分于17世纪由牛顿、莱布尼茨等人各自独立发明；氧气于18世纪由舍勒、普里斯特里、拉瓦锡各自独立发现；进化论则是于19世纪，由达尔文和华莱士分别独立提出。 然而，重复独立发现发明并非只限于科学研究的巨头之间。莫顿认为科学发现的常态应该是由多人独立发现，而不是由一个个人或团体独一无二地发现。 莫顿还对比了「重复发现」与「独特发现」，「独特发现」是指单一的一位科学家或一组合作的科学家得出的发现。 (zh)
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- 历史学及社会学上对于科学界「重复独立发现发明」的现象各有评论。罗伯特·金·莫顿将「重复发现」定义为各自独立开展研究的科学家得出相似的发现的情况。「有些发现是同时的，或者几乎同时的；而有些科学家得出的新发现早在几年前就有人在他不知情的情况下捷足先登。」 重复独立发现发明最常见的例子是微积分、氧气和进化论的发现及发明。微积分于17世纪由牛顿、莱布尼茨等人各自独立发明；氧气于18世纪由舍勒、普里斯特里、拉瓦锡各自独立发现；进化论则是于19世纪，由达尔文和华莱士分别独立提出。 然而，重复独立发现发明并非只限于科学研究的巨头之间。莫顿认为科学发现的常态应该是由多人独立发现，而不是由一个个人或团体独一无二地发现。 莫顿还对比了「重复发现」与「独特发现」，「独特发现」是指单一的一位科学家或一组合作的科学家得出的发现。 (zh)
- Historians and sociologists have remarked upon the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes," writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before." Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. (en)
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