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- خلال عشرينيات وثلاثينيات القرن الماضي، خضع السكّان المنتمون إلى العرق الصيني في الشرق الأقصى الروسي، للهجرة القسرية والقمع السياسي من قبل الحزب الشيوعي السوفيتي. ضم هؤلاء الصينيون مواطني جمهورية الصين والمواطنين السوفييت الذين عُرفوا بانتمائهم إلى العرق الصيني. بحلول الأربعينيات من القرن العشرين، انقرض الصينيون تقريبًا في الشرق الأقصى الروسي، على الرغم من وجود أكثر من 200ألف صيني قبل ثورة أكتوبر عام 1921. ما زال التاريخ المفصّل لكيفية تمييز الصينيين وتهجيرهم بحاجة إلى كشف من السجلات السوفيتية. في الوقت الذي أُجبَر فيه الآسيويون الشرقيون المحليون على المغادرة، أُجبَر الأوروبيون أيضًا على الهجرة إلى الشرق الأقصى من أوروبا وسيبيريا، ليصبحوا في النهاية مهيمنين على السكان المحليين. بلغ عدد ضحايا القمع ما لا يقل عن 27,558 شخص من العرق الصيني، وكان معظمهم من مواطني جمهورية الصين. بحلول عام 1937، بقي 26,706 مواطن في الاتحاد السوفيتي من أصل صيني في الشرق الأقصى الروسي. من بين جميع الضحايا الصينيين، أُطلق سراح 3764 من قبل الحكومة السوفيتية، وأُعدِم 3922، وأُجبَر 17,175 على الهجرة، وسُجِنَ الباقي في أماكن مختلفة بما في ذلك الغولاغ. في 30أكتوبر 2012، أُنشئ نصبان تذكاريّان لضحايا التطهير العرقي في الشرق الأقصى في موسكو وبلاغوفيشتشينسك. في 30 أبريل، قرّر«لاست أدريس» إنشاء لوحة منقوشة لذكرى فان سي سيان، أحد ضحايا التطهير العرقي الذي تعرّض له الصينيون، ووُضَع في مكتب موسكو للجنة الدولية للصليب الأحمر. (ar)
- During the 1920s and 1930s the Soviet government forcibly transferred thousands of Chinese nationals and ethnic Chinese Soviet citizens from the Russian Far East, Most of the deportees were relocated to the Chinese province of Xinjiang and Soviet-controlled Central Asia. Although there were more than 70,000 Chinese living in the Russian Far East in 1926, the Chinese had become almost extinct in the region by the 1940s. To date, the detailed history of the removal of Chinese diasporas in the region remains to be uncovered and deciphered from the Soviet records. Often considered strangers to Soviet society, the Chinese were more prone to political repression, due to their lack of exposure to propaganda machines and their unwillingness to bear the hardship of socialist transformation. From 1926 to 1937, at least 12,000 Chinese were deported from the Russian Far East to the Chinese province of Xinjiang, around 5,500 Chinese settled down in Soviet-controlled Central Asia, and 3,932 were killed. In the meantime, at least 1,000 Chinese were jailed in forced penal labour camps in Komi and Arkhangelsk near the Arctic; Even today, some villages in Komi are still called "Chinatown" because of the Chinese prisoners held in the 1940s and 1950s. Unlike other deported peoples, the deportation of Chinese and Koreans was carried out by the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) members of their own nationalities. While Koreans, Chinese and Japanese were forced to leave the Russian Far East, the Soviet government launched the Khetagurovite Campaign to encourage single female settlers in the Far East, which unwittingly replaced part of the deported Asian populations. The human rights group Memorial International kept the records of over 2,000 Chinese victims of Soviet political repression, yet it has been almost impossible to recognise their original Chinese names from Russian scripts. On 30 April 2017, the Last Address set up an inscribed board in memory of Wang Xi Xiang, a Chinese victim of the Great Purge, at the Moscow Office of the International Committee of the Red Cross. (en)
- Депортация китайцев в Советском Союзе была насильственным перемещением китайских граждан и этнических китайцев, являвшихся советскими гражданами, с Дальнего Востока России в Китай и Среднюю Азию, контролируемую Советским Союзом. Хотя в 1926 году на Дальнем Востоке России проживало более 70 000 китайцев, к 1940-м годам китайцы почти исчезли в этом регионе. Документы, подробно описывающие депортацию китайцев, до сих пор не обнародованы. С 1926 по 1937 год не менее 12 000 китайцев были депортированы с Дальнего Востока России в китайскую провинцию Синьцзянь, около 5500 китайцев поселились в контролируемой Советским Союзом Средней Азии, и 3932 человека были убиты. Не менее 1000 китайцев были заключены в исправительно-трудовые лагеря в республике Коми и Архангельске. Даже сегодня некоторые из деревень в Коми называются «Китайскими кварталами», потому что в этих местах во время депортации содержались китайские заключённые. В отличие от других депортированных народов, депортация китайцев и корейцев осуществлялась сотрудниками НКВД их собственной национальности. В то время как корейцы, китайцы и японцы были вынуждены покинуть российский Дальний Восток, советское правительство запустило кампанию по поощрению одиноких женщин к переселению на Дальний Восток для замещения части депортированного азиатского населения. (ru)
- 远东华人集体流配是指二十世纪二三十年代华人在苏联远东地区所经历的强制人口迁移和政治迫害。这些华人既包括在苏联的中国客工，也包括在俄罗斯远东地区出生的华裔苏联公民。在苏华人往往游离苏联主流社会外，不太接受宣传机器的洗礼以及社会主义改造的艰辛。故而苏联政府视华人为边境地区的“不可靠因素”，并常常将之作为政治迫害的对象。尽管在1917年十月革命之前，在俄罗斯有超过20万华工，到1926年苏联人口普查时，全苏联仍有10万华人，其中7万在远东地区；20世纪40年代，远东地区的华人则已经几乎绝迹；迄今，华人在远东地区的消亡史仍有待苏联档案的进一步公布与学者的更深入研究。 1926年到1937年间，至少有12,000名华人从远东地区被驱逐到中国的新疆省，大约5,500名华人移居中亚，此外有3,932人被杀害，至少有1,000人被监禁在科米和阿尔汉格尔斯克的劳改营；即使在今天，科米的一些村庄仍被称为“唐人街”，因为那里曾经关押着被流配至此的华人囚犯。与对其他少数民族的集体流配不同，针对远东华人和高丽人的流配是由内务人民委员部的本民族成员执行的。在远东当地的高丽人、华人和日本人被迫离开当地的同时，苏联发起了，号召妇女前往远东，以缓解远东地区的性别失衡问题，从而提高移民的留存率；运动所带来的移民在远东的一些地方客观上取代了当地被大量被逮捕与流配的亚裔人口。 俄罗斯人权组织纪念协会整理有一份至少包括2000名旅苏华人受害者的名单，然而其中的中文原名已难以从俄语记录中一一辨识。2017年4月30日，旨在纪念苏联政治迫害的受害者的公民倡议“最后地址”在红十字国际委员会莫斯科办事处设立一个铭牌，以纪念苏联大清洗中的华裔受害者Ван-Си-Сян（Wang-Xi-Xiang）。 (zh)
- Депортація китайців відбувалася в 1920-х — 1930-х роках на Далекому Сході СРСР. Серед цих китайців були як громадяни Китаю, так і радянські громадяни, ідентифіковані як етнічні китайці. До 1940-х років китайці майже зникли на Далекому Сході, хоча до Жовтневої революції їх було приблизно більше 200 тисяч. Через вимушену міграцію частини місцевого населення, відбувалося додаткове заселення регіону вихідцями з європейської частини СРСР В результаті репресій постраждало як мінімум 27 558 китайців, велика частина яких була громадянами Китаю (станом на 1937 рік на радянському Далекому Сході було 26 607 китайців, які є громадянами СРСР ). Посеред жертв переслідувань 3794 людини були звільнені владою, 3922 — страчені, 17 175 змушені були мігрувати, інші були укладені в різні в'язниці, включаючи ГУЛАГ. (uk)
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- Ezhov (en)
- В мае 1936 года Приморское областное управление НКВД приступило к ликвидации «китайских кварталов», арестовывая бездокументных жильцов, уголовников и притоносодержателей, выселяя на улицу всех остальных и реквизируя дома, принадлежащие китайским гражданам. (en)
- 此前苏联虽然想迁移朝鲜人，但碍于朝鲜人身份特殊而没有大动作，但在日本与中国开战无暇顾及远东的时候，苏联对朝鲜人展开大规模强制迁徙。苏联强制迁徙朝鲜人、中国人均在1937年中日战争全面爆发后，很难说这是纯粹巧合。 (en)
- Все эти действия вызвали многочисленные протесты китайского населения, а китайское посольство в Москве направило 26 мая и 4 июня 1936 года две ноты в Народный Комиссариат Иностранных Дел.ноты в Народный Комиссариат Иностранных Дел. (en)
- 另据中国大使馆电文可知，从1935年下半年至1936年，苏联已开始分批驱逐中国侨民。 (en)
- 尽管华工们受到种种虐待，很多人为此付出了生命的代价，但在十月革命前，大多数华工凭着自己的勤劳与节俭，尚能够维持最基本的生活。十月革命后，华工的处境更加恶化，俄国各派都争相欺凌华工: 白俄军队所到之处"多有侨尸暴露，或负枪刀伤痕，或被剥夺衣服，冻馁而死"; 苏俄红军也不甘落后，"奸淫掳虐惨不忍视，房屋货物均可付之一炬"，"凡不通俄语者均被过激派指为内奸，钱财衣物使之一丝不存，复伤其性命"; 西伯利亚地区的英、美、日等国军队也随意搜查来往华工，他们发现一星半点可疑的东西就立刻给华工安上"红党"的罪名，"连话也不问一句就枪杀了"。 (en)
- Кроме того, Дерибас получил распоряжение «дальнейшую ликвидацию "Миллионки" производить с большей осторожностью, не давая оснований к обвинениям, что это мероприятие направлено исключительно против китайцев. Сроки и порядок выселения согласовать с НКИД, чтобы с ликвидацией "Миллионки" закончить не позже этого года». (en)
- In May 1929 there was a raid by the Manchurian authorities on the Soviet Consulate at Harbin, much like that on the consulate at Peking two years before. As as a result of the raid a number of Soviet citizens, including the General Manager of the CER and his assistant were removed from their posts and, in some cases, arrested. Soviet retaliation took the form of the arrest of a number of Chinese citizens, including businessmen, in the Soviet Union. (en)
- 首先，在外国移民中推行扫盲教育。鼓励建立华人社团及工会组织，允许创办华人报纸。但在当时缺乏师资的条件下，根本没有能够教授中国人俄语的教师。学生往往是只能读其音，不解其义。到1929年参加扫盲教育的598个中国人中，只有116个人完成了全部课程的学习，绝大多数华人还是文盲。其次，允许创办华文报刊，组织华人工会。《华工醒时报》1922年在赤塔创刊，由赤塔华工会主办，向中国工人宣传无产阶级革命思想。 (en)
- Full statistics on the number of Chinese deported from the country are not available. Several thousand were deported from areas under military rule, and 963 from Moscow. Numbers from provinces outside the area under military rule were usually in the tens or low hundreds. (en)
- Geitsman believed that for every Chinese worker/NEPman who was deported, a Korean would simply take his/her place. (en)
- 大约有超过1万中国人从滨海地区强行迁出，他们中的大部分通过哈萨克斯坦进入新疆境内。 (en)
- 不久前苏联与外蒙古签订《苏蒙互助议定书》已引发中国不满，苏联领导人不愿因海参崴中国人问题而使两国关系恶化，故采取措施缓和了这种情况。6月17日，联共中央政治局向远东边疆区下发指示："要求更加谨慎，不要授人以口实，即让人认为行动是针对中国人的。驱逐过程与外交人民委员部相配合，不晚于今年，完成清理'百万街'。" (en)
- At the same time that Russia launched the great reforms of subjecthood, it also annexed a vast expanse of territory from the Chinese Empire along the Amur River to the Pacific . (en)
- In the spring of 1939, Andrei Zhdanov toured Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, and Nakhodka to assess the results of "cleansing". What he saw was not encouraging. The Far East had met none of its five-year plan targets. Production indices for industry, fisheries, and forestry in 1938 were below 1935 levels. Construction of the Baikal-Amur Railroad ground to a halt. Far Eastern agriculture suffered irreparable losses. Repression of rural party secretaries, soviet chairmen, agronomists, and Machine-Tractor Station personnel compounded the damage wrought by forced collectivization. The expulsion of Chinese and Koreans removed the region's most productive cultivators. (en)
- 为了补充国内劳动力缺口，俄国政府一改以往的排华、限华、驱华的政策，在中国山东、河北、东三省等地招募了40万以上华工，这些华工分布于俄国各地。 (en)
- 对于远东地区众多的中国人，苏联当局是如何具体决策和处置的，这个问题有待于苏联档案资料的公布及学者们的深入研究。 (en)
- With the outbreak of WWI, however, Russia's labour shortage assumed a 91 critical dimension. Not only was the law of June 1910 prohibiting Chinese labour lifted, the state itself began to take a proactive policy in obtaining Chinese workers, with the involvement of its consuls in China. Recruitment began in 1915 on a massive scale, reaching a peak in 1916 and outnumbering the labour contingents hired by France or Britain. (en)
- 同俄国人相比，他们工资低、易管理、劳动效率高，且少有酗酒等不良嗜好，尤其是坚忍耐劳，"非俄工所能企及"，因而较受俄国工商各界欢迎。然而，正是这种竞争上的优势和不断增加的人数，使俄国政府和社会的担忧与日俱增，一部分势力甚至将其视为俄罗斯民族、国防、经济等方面 "高度危险的根源"，其中最极端的看法莫过于19世纪末20世纪初风行一时的"黄祸论"。 (en)
- From 1930 to 1932, VTsK NA focused its latinization efforts on three further goals: the latinization of Chinese and Korean, the formation of latin alphabets for the small peoples of the north, and, most importantly, the latinization of the Cyrillic alphabets of the eastern Finns and the Chuvash. The latinization of Chinese and Korean were significant for two reasons. First, it represented an attempt to force the issue of latinization for peoples where the overwhelming majority lived abroad, and also where there were considerable hopes for a communist revolution. (en)
- CA FSB of Russia. F. 3. Op. 4. D. 152. L. 227. (en)
- However, there was a widespread perception among the Japanese elite that this had not gone far enough. Dunscomb and Dickinson, in their studies of Japanese imperialism, have emphasised the practical and philosophical dimensions of Japan's expansionist drive. (en)
- Khabarovsk NKVD to Lyushkov (en)
- Ref. No. 52691 (en)
- Общеизвестно, что китайская диаспора во Владивостоке была самой многочисленной после русского населения, о чем свидетель ствуют официальные статистические данные. Китайцы играли ключевую роль во многих областях городской жизни. Китайский труд был широко востребован во Владивостоке в течение всего периода имперской власти и на начальном этапе советской, вплоть до массового выселения китайцев в 1938 году. (en)
- 继续筛选被处决者显示被处决的中国人人数为3932名，被处决时间集中在1938年8月初至11月底。 (en)
- 第一类：迁移新疆者。滨海州6189名、乌苏里斯克州1665名、布拉哥总领馆辖区1815名实际赴新疆，伯力总领馆辖区参照海参崴、布拉哥总领馆发放签证与实际赴新疆人数的比例，推测赴新疆人数应为2000人左右。以上合计约为11000余人。另据新疆省政府报告，截至1938年8月23日，抵达新疆侨胞数量已达万余人。根据1938年11月10日苏联释放在押的定罪较轻中国人的决议，符合条件的大约为1000人。由以上可推算出，迁移到新疆的远东华侨至少应在12000人。 (en)
- [华人]在事实上已成为这一地区开发与发展的"主要推动力"。故此，在此次排华事件中，俄国政商各界即有不少反对的意见。 (en)
- Таким образом, к концу 1930-х гг. массовые репрессии в отношении китайских мигрантов привели к почти полному исчезновению этой группы в составе советского населения. (en)
- 尽管会上有人将中国劳工称为"俄罗斯边疆毫无疑问的最大敌人和政治层面上的巨大威胁"，但考虑到中国人对当地工商业不可或缺的作用，会议拒绝通过任何极端的排华措施，认为"与中国劳工的斗争只能通过持续吸引俄罗斯劳工到边疆的方式进行"。 (en)
- Таким образом, как и все народы, проживавшие на территории СССР, китайские граждане, оказались в числе пострадавших от политических репрессий. Больше того, процент репрессированных китайцев, по отношению к общей их численности, во многих регионах был выше, чем у других народов. Высокий процент китайских мигрантов, пострадавших от политических репрессий в СССР, был обусловлен, по мнению Дацышена следующими причинами: «китайские мигранты в подавляющем большинстве были «чужаками» в российском обществе, они менее всего были подвержены влиянию советской пропагандистской машины, не хотели переносить лишения и тяготы переходного периода строительства нового общества и укрепления страны, были более беззащитными, перед произволом советской бюрократии и репрессивной машины». В тоже время, стоит отметить, что китайские мигранты в числе первых освобождались из мест заключения. Это связано с известным всем поворотом в Советско-китайских отношениях в конце 1940-х-начале 1950-х годов. (en)
- 本在东北黑河地区某金矿工作，因为意外，所乘木排被冲到了苏联边境，结果郭金玉被苏联边防人员以侦探为名逮捕，可是郭金玉是个"又瞎、又聋、又哑"的人。 (en)
- 在实行新经济政策时期，有数量众多的中国人前往远东谋生，并对当地社会经济生活产生很大影响。到20世纪20年代中后期，远东中国人拥有超过50％的商业场所和大致相同比例的贸易额，他们的活动领域非常广泛，涵盖了初级工业品、衣服和食品。他们经营了小额杂货贸易的48.5％，食品、饮料、烟草行业的22.1％，餐饮业的10.2％，在远东商业领域充当重要角色。 (en)
- 一天后内务人民委员部将这一决议整理成13条具体实施细则，由叶若夫下达给柳什科夫......此后，从1938年6月中旬至1938年底，远东中国人进行了大规模迁移，至1939年苏联进行新一轮人口普查时那里的中国人已经所剩不多。 (en)
- 十月革命爆发后，俄国陷入了长达五年之久 （1917-1922）的内乱之中，旅俄华侨也多陷入了困境。他们中的一部分（约5万人）加入了苏俄红军抗击白俄的战斗，为苏俄革命胜利做出了贡献，多数则通过各种方式，比如在北洋政府、旅俄华工联合会、中国红十字会等的帮助下返回祖国。 (en)
- After the Russo-Japanese War, the trope of "yellow peril" often referred to Chinese and Korean workers in Russia as a possible vanguard or as a reverse piedmont for an expansionist Japan. (en)
- All Chinese, regardless of their nationality, showing provocative actions or terrorist intent, should be immediately arrested. (en)
- Under the Aigun Treaty of 1858 and the Peking Treaty two years later, Russia acquired all the lands north of the Amur River as well as the lands on the Pacific Coast between the mouth of the Amur and Korea. Territorial acquisition was swiftly followed by colonising initiatives, led by the highest levels of government. (en)
- In the Soviet Far East, collectivization also provoked increased ethnic tension and growing security concerns. Anti-Korean and anti-Chinese popular violence increased dramatically from 1928 to 1932. 156 This atmosphere led to a mass outflow of Chinese migrant labor. (en)
- Larin points out that the Chinese formed their own organisations - from chambers of commerce to secret societies - which circumvented Russian authority. (en)
- 经过数次逮捕，海参崴地区未捕之华侨仅剩千余人。随后，苏联政府使了一着"缓兵之计"的丑陋把戏，先暂停逮捕一个月，诱 使"死守领事馆"的一千多名华侨尽数离开。随后，突然于3月28日大肆逮捕，不少华侨欲再往领事馆避难，但由于苏联官方事先在街头"密布岗哨"，全被中途截阻而去。至此，海参崴华侨基本上被"一网打尽"。 (en)
- 笔者还查阅了一些难侨的回忆录，发现在北极圈附近的阿尔汉格尔斯克州、科米共和国的古拉格营地有不少中国囚犯，数量至少在1000人以上，这批人原居住地多数是远东，他们应是该数据库中3000多名被判5年以上刑期的中国人的一部分。 (en)
- In previous years, our country had lost out many times to the Russians. Now that we have added consulates in several areas and recently also sent a flotilla, it seems that the rights that we had lost are gradually being recovered. The Omsk government cannot but view this with envy. We should take this opportunity to send troops and station them in key areas. This would supplement the strength of the border and make negotiations easier to handle. (en)
- p. 142: "尽管进入30年代以后人口构成发生了当局乐意看到的变化，但苏联并没有停止彻底解决 "黄祸" 问题的步伐。"
p. 143: "此外，东北亚国际局势的变化也加重了苏联对亚洲移民的担忧。日俄战争失败后，俄罗斯在对日关系中长期处于守势，国内战争时期日军对远东的大规模军事干涉令苏联心有余悸，而"9·18事变"更使日本对俄远东的安全威胁进一步现实化。" (en)
- 因此，1939年人口普查中中亚地区的5500余名中国人，既包括未加入苏联国籍的华侨，也包括已经获得苏联国籍的华人。 (en)
- 而谢苗诺夫、卡尔梅柯夫匪帮以日本为靠山与鄂木斯克政权分庭抗礼, 肆意掠夺旅居该地的侨民, 并对我华侨商人极力摧残。以至"俄境官兵对于各国商旅, 虽韩人亦不搜查, 惟专与华人为难"。 (en)
- Russian and Chinese colonial consolidation, therefore, created an immense demand for labour on one side of the border - and a similarly immense supply of workers on the other. This turned the trickle of Chinese migrants in the Russian Far East into a flood. (en)
- 但此时正值全面抗战爆发，并未引起中国政府足够重视。 (en)
- The "question of yellow labour" and economic activity became ever more strident, raising the prospect of Russian territory being swamped by the Chinese. The Boxer Rebellion of 1900 seemed to confirm the Russians' fears. In 1907-1908 Amur governor-general P.F. Unterberger, having declared "I'd rather see our lands go empty than have them occupied by the yellow element", discussed in Vladivostok the issue of limiting Chinese migration. This culminated in the Council of Ministers' approval of a series of laws restricting certain groups of Chinese - such as the elderly or crippled - from entering Russia (en)
- 但可以确定的是：到20世纪40年代 ,远东地区已经没有中国人了。 (en)
- 此后，苏联政府继续推行其所谓"白俄远东"政策，大规模移殖俄民到远东，其中一五计划前的1925-1928年移民远东76372人（其中有10170人迁居后不久即返归，实际移民66202人）。 (en)
- 尽管十月革命后，不少华工与华商多数能够在苏俄政府的压榨下勉强维持生存，但苏联政府内部排华的声音一浪高过一浪。1926 年苏联外交人民委员部开会决定"必须采取所有可行的措施，禁止中国人和朝鲜人流入苏维埃领土"，会议认为中国人的流入是严重的危险，从 20 年代开始苏联在试图从远东迁出一部分朝鲜人的同时，对这里的华人实行"挤压出边区的政策"。 (en)
- 伯力、布拉哥各领事馆报告俄远东一带有大批华侨被捕......伯力200余人，布拉哥百余人。 (en)
- In theory, the Treaty of Aigun set up a permanent foreign population with extraterritorial rights and immunities from Russian rule. In practice, this meant that Chinese subjects continued to pay taxes and other obligations to the governors of Chinese border provinces, and were extradited to China for nearly all criminal matters [...] He proceeded to simply ignore their special status and used administrative means to treat them all like other foreigners. This caused many— often successful— diplomatic protests from China. The situation remained tense and in limbo until the extraordinary events of the Boxer Rebellion. (en)
- 所有被司法逮捕的涉案人员，禁止在远东地区、赤塔、伊尔库茨克地区居住。 (en)
- Unfortunately, despite having been born in Russia or the Soviet Union, the diaspora peoples such as Germans, Poles, Greeks, Koreans, Chinese and Iranians were often seen as having homelands and political allegiances to countries bearing their ethnonym, that is, ancestral homelands. (en)
- 迁移到新疆的远东华侨至少应在12000人。 (en)
- 可是在1939年初的人口普查中该地区突然出现5500余名中国人。这些人显然是从远东、东西伯利亚等地迁移来的，并且应当以远东地区迁来的为多。 (en)
- Реагируя на донесения начальника Управления НКВД по Дальневосточному краю Т.Д. Дерибаса, Политбюро ЦК ВКП 17 апреля 1936 года приняло специальное Постановление, гласившее: «Предложить тов. Дерибасу ликвидировать "Миллионку" малыми порциями под тем или иным предлогом в течение 4-5 месяцев, т.е. к осени сего года». (en)
- In March and April 1928, Geitsman, Regional 214 Sibirica Representative of the NKID in Vladivostok, in a letter sent to NKID and Dal'kraikom, launching a sharp criticism of the regional authorities' policy towards the Chinese population, which was being conducted under the slogan "struggle against petty traders". (en)
- He understood that China had left a legacy there and that the natives still regarded the Chinese as the "masters" of the region. Wresting the economic reins from Chinese and Korean laborers was seen as an issue of political authority. This view of East Asian economic productivity as one that weakened the political authority of Russians in the RFE was to resurface during the Soviet period. (en)
- Уменьшение китайского населения в регионе явилось следствием политики советского руководства, направленной на постепенный отказ от иностранной рабочей силы, ограничение частного предпринимательства, на борьбу с нелегалами и преступностью. (en)
- 由于国民政府提出八项迁移条件，实际上表明了屈从的态度，苏联目的已基本达到，因而很快回复了中方要求：1.苏方愿担负华侨迁往苏联内地及新疆费用，唯须由地方官厅组织按批次遣发；2.苏方可给予华侨相当时日，料理私事，期限自两星期至一个月；3.仅限有生业工作能力，愿在苏联从事生产工作之华侨得移送苏联内地，其他侨民予以便利，经新疆回国；4.苏方将协助华侨处置不动产，听其出卖或委托他人代管，如无相当代理人时可交领馆代管，但不得使大批房产全行集中领馆，市政府将指派专员协助华侨清理上项财产；5.市政府外事科按照第三条所规定办法编造应予遣送之华侨名册，并另抄一份指明运送时间，经由交涉员函送驻海参崴、伯力及布拉哥领馆备案；6.华侨苏籍妻子亦得随同回国；7.被捕华侨苏方原则上同意予以遣送出境，但以未犯有重罪为限。 (en)
- With little evidence, the army high command claimed that Germany was using its influence in Manchuria to recruit Chinese spies. As a prophylactic measure, army headquarters ordered the internment and deportation of Chinese traders from all areas under military rule [...] However, China was officially neutral in the war, and its protests led the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to insist that governors restrict their deportations to only those "suspected of spying". Nonetheless, thousands of Chinese subjects were deported from areas throughout the empire. In October 1914, the government categorically banned the entry of Chinese into the Russian Empire. Although China entered the war on Russia's side later in the same month, this ban was not lifted until 1916. (en)
- 据统计，仅滨海州的第二、三次大抓捕，所抓中国人即已达到2005人和3082人。另据海参崴总领馆5月7日上报数据："查本馆辖区内侨民被捕者居十之七八，数在七八千人。"大规模的抓捕，让当地监狱人满为患，在审讯时往往还加以刑讯逼供，甚至折磨致死的情形也时有发生。办案人员满负荷工作，并在极短时间内对数千例案件结案，这段时间办理的案件几乎所有卷宗都是仓促编成的，指控也都是伪造的。从1938年4月27日到5月27日调查基本上结束，远东地区被认定有罪的5816名中国人中，按第一类处理3123人，按第二类处理2693人。 (en)
- 同一战前情况相似，这一时期入境中国人多为季节性打工者，不断有人入境，又不断有人返乡，加之苏联统计部门能力所限，很多非法入境者在统计中被遗漏，中国人的实际数量应远远高于当时的统计数字。 (en)
- 不过，当中方要求苏方提供书面保证时，苏联予以拒绝，外交人民委员部远东司司长称："本部与他国办理此类案件向不用书面形式，因两国解决案件诚意与否不在书面之形式而在切实执行，此答复系经本部最高长官考虑后所得结果，请勿坚持。"中方为抗战大局再次进行了退让，未再坚持要求苏联提供书面保证。 (en)
- 同时还要关注一个事实，那就是华侨当中有许多人来自日本1932年建立的傀儡国家——"满洲国"，日本因此可能将这些人宣布为"满洲国"的公民。 (en)
- На заседании 17 июня 1936 года Политбюро ЦК ВКП снова обсуждало вопрос «О ликвидации "Миллионки" во Владивостоке». Был утвержден проект ответа НКИД китайскому посольству. (en)
- Одновременно Владивостокскому городскому Совету предписывалось «...снабдить жилплощадью всех тех китайских граждан, которые были или будут выселены из домов "Миллионки" и которые проживали там на законных основаниях и не совершали никаких преступлений». (en)
- It had long been stated that the "national" deportations of the Chinese and the Koreans were carried out by NKVD members of their own nationality . This has now been confirmed. (en)
- 尽管98％的华侨没有成为苏联公民...... (en)
- In Spassk and other places, Khetagurovites unwittingly replaced the Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese who were targets of mass arrests and deportations in this period. (en)
- 苏联政府认为日本关东军为了对苏联进行破坏活动和间谍工作，在培训掌握俄语的中国人方面做了大量工作。这些中国人经常"越境进行侦探"，或通过技术伪装"散发反革命传单"，他们认为这些怀有反苏情绪的中国人是日本侦察机关实施计划的可靠基础，因此必须对其严厉打击，以使日本特务机关丧失活动能力。 (en)
- Of about 35,000 Chinese in Dal'krai at the beginning of 1937,55 Liushkovarrested 11,000 and deported 8,000 between August 1937 and May 1938.56 All Chinese domiciled in Vladivostok or within 60 miles of the frontier were forcibly relocated. (en)
- The rapid growth of both Chinese and Korean populations combined with the frustratingly slow progress in recruiting Russians and Ukrainians to migrate to the Far East, raising concerns about the present and future demographic balance of the region. (en)
- Assuming that about 200,000 were repressed in the Far East during 1937-1938, that would constitute 8 % of Dal'krai's population , a significantly higher percentage than for the USSR as a whole. (en)
- По переписи 1926 г. во Владивостокском округе насчитывалось 43 513 чел. . (en)
- Книга посвящена китайской диаспоре Владивостока и освещает некоторые аспекты ее жизнедеятельности в течение почти семидесяти лет: с начала 1870-х годов до 1938 года – времени массового выселения китайцев с территории Дальнего Востока СССР. (en)
- Under Joseph Stalin trafficking became a severely sanctioned political crime. Smugglers were denounced as enemies of the social and moral order, and the word "contrabandist" could be mentioned in the same breath as the word "traitor". In many of those cases, however, accusations of smuggling were only convenient excuses for arrest. We will see in the next chapter that many of those detained and accused of smuggling had in fact never crossed the border, much less engaged in illicit trade. (en)
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- AP RF. F. 3. Op. 58. D. 139. L. 106-107. (en)
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- Resolution of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party on the resettlement of Chinese from the Far East (en)
- Instructions of the People's Commissar of the NKVD N.I. Yezhov to the head of the Department of the NKVD of the Far East G.S. Lyushkov on the arrest of the Chinese (en)
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- 0001-05-26 (xsd:gMonthDay)
- 0001-06-17 (xsd:gMonthDay)
- 0001-08-23 (xsd:gMonthDay)
- 1.57788E8
- 1870.0
- 1920.0
- 1930.0
- 1940.0
- 8000.0
- -1.3149E7
- See below. (en)
- In May 1936, the Primorsky Regional Administration of the NKVD began liquidating the "Chinese quarters," arresting undocumented tenants, criminals and brothel keepers, evicting everyone else to the streets, and requisitioning houses belonging to Chinese citizens. (en)
- At the same time the Vladivostok city council was ordered "...to provide housing for all those Chinese citizens who were or will be evicted from the houses of "Millionka" and who lived there legally and did not commit any crimes". (en)
- It is also known from the Chinese Embassy's messages that from the second half of 1935 to 1936, the Soviet Union had begun to deport Chinese expatriates in batches. (en)
- Although the Soviet Union wanted to relocate the Koreans, it did not do so because of the special status of the Koreans , but when Japan was at war with China and had no time for the Far East, the Soviet Union launched a large-scale forced relocation of the Koreans. It is hard to say that it was purely a coincidence that the Soviet Union forcibly relocated Koreans and Chinese after the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937. (en)
- The bandits of Semenov and Kalmykov, with Japan as their backer, fought against the Omsk regime, plundered the expatriates living in the region, and destroyed the Chinese merchants. So much so that "Russian officers and soldiers did not search the merchants of all countries, even Koreans, but only Chinese". (en)
- Although Chinese workers were described as "undoubtedly the greatest enemy of the Russian frontier and a great threat at the political level", the congress refused to adopt any extreme exclusionary measures, considering the indispensable role of the Chinese in local industry and commerce, and argued that "the struggle against Chinese workers can only be carried out through the continuous attraction of Russian workers to the frontier". (en)
- A day later the NKVD compiled this resolution into 13 specific rules for its implementation, which Yezhov issued to Lyushkov ...... Thereafter, from mid-June 1938 to the end of 1938, the Chinese in the Far East underwent a massive migration, and by 1939 when a new census was conducted in the Soviet Union there were very few Chinese left. (en)
- However, in the early 1939 census, over 5,500 Chinese suddenly appeared in the area. These people had apparently migrated from the Far East, East Siberia and other places, among which probably more from the Far East. (en)
- [The Chinese] had in fact become the "main driving force" for the development and growth of the region. This is why there was so much opposition from Russian business and political circles to the deportation. (en)
- First, literacy education was introduced among foreign immigrants. The establishment of Chinese associations and trade unions was encouraged, and Chinese newspapers were allowed to be established. However, in the absence of teachers at that time, there were simply no teachers who could teach Russian to the Chinese. Students often could only read the sounds but not understand the meaning. By 1929, out of the 598 Chinese who participated in literacy education, only 116 had completed the entire course, and the vast majority of Chinese were still illiterate. Second, Chinese newspapers were allowed to be established and Chinese trade unions were organised. Huagong Xingshibao was founded in Chita in 1922, sponsored by the Chita Chinese Workers' Association, to propagate proletarian revolutionary ideas to Chinese workers. (en)
- Thereafter, the Soviet government continued its so-called "White Russian Far East" policy, with the mass immigration of Russians to the Far East, including 76,372 in the years 1925-1928 before the First Five-Year Plan . (en)
- After the outbreak of the October Revolution, Russia was plunged into civil unrest for five years , and many Chinese expatriates in Russia were caught in the crossfire. Some of them joined the Soviet Red Army in the fight against the White Russians and contributed to the victory of the Soviet Revolution, while most of them returned to their homeland in various ways, for example, with the help of the Beiyang government, the Chinese Workers' Association in Russia and the Chinese Red Cross. (en)
- Despite the mistreatment of Chinese workers, many of whom paid with their lives, the majority of them were able to maintain a basic living through hard work and thrift before the October Revolution. After the October Revolution, the situation of Chinese workers worsened, and all Russian factions competed with each other to bully them: where the White Russians went, there were often "unburied corpses of Chinese diasporas, which had suffered wounds from guns and knives, or were stripped of their clothes and died of cold"; the Soviet Red Army was not far behind, "raping and abusing them, and setting fire to their houses and goods". Anyone who did not speak Russian was accused by the radicals of being a traitor, and their money and clothes were stripped from them and their lives were injured"; the British, American and Japanese troops in Siberia also searched for Chinese workers without a reason, and when they found anything suspicious, they immediately charged them with "Red Party" crimes and killed them without asking a question. (en)
- Although 98% of the Chinese diaspora did not become Soviet citizens ...... (en)
- Continued screening of those executed shows the number of Chinese executed to be 3,932, with executions concentrated between the beginning of August and the end of November 1938. (en)
- Thus, the 5,500 or so Chinese in Central Asia in the 1939 census included both Chinese nationals who had not acquired Soviet citizenship and Chinese who had already acquired Soviet citizenship. (en)
- According to the 1926 census, there were 43,513 people in the Vladivostok district. (en)
- In addition, Deribas was instructed to "carry out further liquidation of the "Millionka" with greater caution, without giving grounds for accusations that this action is directed exclusively against the Chinese. The terms and order of eviction should be coordinated with the NCID, so that liquidation of "Millionka" could be completed no later than this year. (en)
- However, when the Chinese demanded a written guarantee from the Soviet side, the Soviet Union refused, and the Director of the Far East Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and People's Commissariat said, "We do not use written form in handling such cases with other countries, because the sincerity of the two countries in resolving the cases does not lie in the form of writing but in the practical implementation." The Chinese side again backed down for the sake of the war effort and did not insist on a written guarantee from the Soviet Union. (en)
- The Soviet Union was willing to bear the cost of moving the Chinese to the Soviet inland and Xinjiang, provided that the local government organises the repatriation of the Chinese in batches; 2. The Soviet Union will assist the Chinese in disposing of their real estate by selling it or entrusting it to others, or if there is no equivalent agent, by handing it over to the consulate, but the consulate shall not concentrate a large number of properties. The foreign affairs section of the city government will compile a list of Chinese nationals to be deported in accordance with the method stipulated in Article 3, and make a copy of the list indicating the time of transportation, and send it to the consulates in Vladivostok, Khabarovsk and Blagoveshchensk by letter of the diplomat for the record; 6. The Soviet wives of Chinese nationals may also return with them to their home countries; 7. The Soviet side agrees in principle to deport the arrested Chinese nationals, but only if they have not committed a serious crime. (en)
- It is well known that the Chinese diaspora in Vladivostok was the largest after the Russian population, as evidenced by official statistics. The Chinese played a key role in many areas of urban life. Chinese labor was in great demand in Vladivostok during the entire period of imperial rule and at the initial stage of Soviet rule, right up to the mass expulsion of Chinese in 1938. (en)
- Attention should also be paid to the fact that many of the overseas Chinese came from "Manchukuo," the puppet state established by Japan in 1932, and Japan may therefore have declared these people as citizens of "Manchukuo." (en)
- Compared to the Russians, they were more popular with Russian business and industry because of their low wages, ease of management, high labour efficiency, and few bad habits such as alcoholism, and especially their perseverance and endurance, which was "beyond the reach of Russian workers". However, it was this competitive advantage and growing numbers that caused growing concern in the Russian government and society, in which some groups even seeing it as a "highly dangerous source" for Russia's nation, defence and economy. The most extreme of such ideologies was the popular notion of "Yellow Perils" during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (en)
- At the beginning of February 1911, the Russian Ambassador to China informed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Qing Government that, due to the need to prevent epidemics, it was proposed to deport unemployed Chinese people from the coastal provinces to China, and that all expenses should be borne by the Chinese. Subsequently, without consulting the Chinese, the Russians first arrested 500 Chinese in Khabarovsk and sent them to Vladivostok to be forcibly repatriated to China, and then arrested a large number of Chinese in Vladivostok and Nikolaevsk, where the Chinese had gathered, and forcibly drove them back to China. Telegraphs were sent from Heilongjiang and Jilin reporting the forcible internment and deportation of Chinese. (en)
- In 1928, Arsenyev, who had been involved in several deportations of Chinese during the Tsarist era, submitted a report to the Soviet Far Eastern Committee, stating that "in the areas adjacent to Northeast China and Korea, it is necessary to prevent free immigration from China and Korea, and these areas should be filled with immigrants from Siberia and the European part of the Soviet Union. (en)
- Similar to the situation before the war, most of the Chinese entering the country during this period were seasonal workers, constantly entering and returning to their homeland, and because many illegal entrants were omitted from the statistics due to the capacity of the Soviet statistical services, the actual number of Chinese should be much higher than the statistics at that time. (en)
- The author also checked the memoirs of some refugees and found that there were a number of Chinese prisoners in the Arkhangelsk region near the Arctic Circle, in the Gulag camp in the Komi Republic, numbering at least 1,000. Most of this group originally resided in the Far East and they should be part of the more than 3,000 Chinese sentenced to more than five years in this database. (en)
- Approximately more than 10,000 Chinese were forcibly removed from the Primorye region, most of them entering the Chinese territory of Xinjiang through Kazakhstan. (en)
- The question of how the Soviet authorities made specific decisions and disposed of the numerous Chinese in the Far East awaits the release of Soviet archival materials and in-depth research by scholars. (en)
- In order to supplement the domestic labour shortage, the Russian government changed its previous policy of excluding, restricting and expelling Chinese workers, and recruited over 400,000 Chinese workers in Shandong, Hebei and the three eastern provinces of China, who were located all over Russia. (en)
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- خلال عشرينيات وثلاثينيات القرن الماضي، خضع السكّان المنتمون إلى العرق الصيني في الشرق الأقصى الروسي، للهجرة القسرية والقمع السياسي من قبل الحزب الشيوعي السوفيتي. ضم هؤلاء الصينيون مواطني جمهورية الصين والمواطنين السوفييت الذين عُرفوا بانتمائهم إلى العرق الصيني. في 30أكتوبر 2012، أُنشئ نصبان تذكاريّان لضحايا التطهير العرقي في الشرق الأقصى في موسكو وبلاغوفيشتشينسك. في 30 أبريل، قرّر«لاست أدريس» إنشاء لوحة منقوشة لذكرى فان سي سيان، أحد ضحايا التطهير العرقي الذي تعرّض له الصينيون، ووُضَع في مكتب موسكو للجنة الدولية للصليب الأحمر. (ar)
- During the 1920s and 1930s the Soviet government forcibly transferred thousands of Chinese nationals and ethnic Chinese Soviet citizens from the Russian Far East, Most of the deportees were relocated to the Chinese province of Xinjiang and Soviet-controlled Central Asia. Although there were more than 70,000 Chinese living in the Russian Far East in 1926, the Chinese had become almost extinct in the region by the 1940s. To date, the detailed history of the removal of Chinese diasporas in the region remains to be uncovered and deciphered from the Soviet records. (en)
- Депортация китайцев в Советском Союзе была насильственным перемещением китайских граждан и этнических китайцев, являвшихся советскими гражданами, с Дальнего Востока России в Китай и Среднюю Азию, контролируемую Советским Союзом. Хотя в 1926 году на Дальнем Востоке России проживало более 70 000 китайцев, к 1940-м годам китайцы почти исчезли в этом регионе. Документы, подробно описывающие депортацию китайцев, до сих пор не обнародованы. (ru)
- Депортація китайців відбувалася в 1920-х — 1930-х роках на Далекому Сході СРСР. Серед цих китайців були як громадяни Китаю, так і радянські громадяни, ідентифіковані як етнічні китайці. До 1940-х років китайці майже зникли на Далекому Сході, хоча до Жовтневої революції їх було приблизно більше 200 тисяч. Через вимушену міграцію частини місцевого населення, відбувалося додаткове заселення регіону вихідцями з європейської частини СРСР (uk)
- 远东华人集体流配是指二十世纪二三十年代华人在苏联远东地区所经历的强制人口迁移和政治迫害。这些华人既包括在苏联的中国客工，也包括在俄罗斯远东地区出生的华裔苏联公民。在苏华人往往游离苏联主流社会外，不太接受宣传机器的洗礼以及社会主义改造的艰辛。故而苏联政府视华人为边境地区的“不可靠因素”，并常常将之作为政治迫害的对象。尽管在1917年十月革命之前，在俄罗斯有超过20万华工，到1926年苏联人口普查时，全苏联仍有10万华人，其中7万在远东地区；20世纪40年代，远东地区的华人则已经几乎绝迹；迄今，华人在远东地区的消亡史仍有待苏联档案的进一步公布与学者的更深入研究。 1926年到1937年间，至少有12,000名华人从远东地区被驱逐到中国的新疆省，大约5,500名华人移居中亚，此外有3,932人被杀害，至少有1,000人被监禁在科米和阿尔汉格尔斯克的劳改营；即使在今天，科米的一些村庄仍被称为“唐人街”，因为那里曾经关押着被流配至此的华人囚犯。与对其他少数民族的集体流配不同，针对远东华人和高丽人的流配是由内务人民委员部的本民族成员执行的。在远东当地的高丽人、华人和日本人被迫离开当地的同时，苏联发起了，号召妇女前往远东，以缓解远东地区的性别失衡问题，从而提高移民的留存率；运动所带来的移民在远东的一些地方客观上取代了当地被大量被逮捕与流配的亚裔人口。 (zh)
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- ترحيل الصينيين من الاتحاد السوفيتي (ar)
- Deportasi orang Tionghoa oleh Uni Soviet (in)
- Soviet deportations of Chinese people (en)
- Советская депортация китайцев (ru)
- 远东华人强制流配 (zh)
- Радянська депортація китайців (uk)
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