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rdfs:label: Systems theory Teoria systemów Théorie générale des systèmes 체계 이론 Systeemtheorie 一般システム理論 Systemteori Teoria de sistemes Teoria geral de sistemas 一般系統理論 Teoría de sistemas Общая теория систем Systemtheorie Teorie systémů نظرية الأنظمة Teoria dei sistemi Теорія систем
rdfs:comment: 一般システム理論（いっぱん-りろん、General System Theory (GST)）は、ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ベルタランフィが、生命現象に対する機械論を排して唱えた理論である。 20世紀前半に提唱された、現象のマクロな挙動を直接的にモデル化して扱う科学理論のことである。史上初めて科学で非線形現象を説明可能にし、現代のハイテク製品を支えるシステム工学やコンピュータシステムの設計にも応用された。例えば、航空機や情報システムなどの設計で作成されるブロック図，データフロー図はシステム理論の実践である。ソフトウェアの入出力なども、システム理論で言う所の入出力に対応する。 19世紀までの近代科学では、原子1つ1つの挙動の寄せ集めで全ての現象を説明可能とする要素還元主義が一般的(つまりは全ての現象が線型という扱い)であり、3つ以上の原子が相互作用して起きる非線型な現象を形而上学の概念である「全体性」として説明してきた。近代科学の時代は、非線形現象について、あたかも科学的に説明出来ない「生気」が物質に付随するかのように捉えられており、「生気」の実在を巡って激しい論争が起きていた。一般系統理論（英語：General systems theory），是所有系統理論（Systems theory）之基礎，用來解釋生物現象。生物體中的有機體(Organism)是個具有各種相互依存的故不分系統，而且每個系統又包含了一些次級系統，例如循環系統，在平常生活中人類社會也有自創的社會系統，例如運輸系統。一般系統理論的學說大致如下： Теорія систем (загальна теорія систем) — спеціально-наукова і логіко-методологічна концепція дослідження об'єктів, які є системами. З розвитком системології теорія систем набула необхідної уніфікації та універсальності, вичерпної однозначності та завершеності. До цілей дослідження в рамках теорії систем належить вивчення: Systemtheorie ist eine interdisziplinäre Betrachtungsweise, in der grundlegende Aspekte und Prinzipien von Systemen zur Beschreibung und Erklärung unterschiedlich komplexer Phänomene herangezogen werden. La teoria general de sistemes, teoria de sistemes, teoria sistèmica, enfocament sistèmic o pensament sistèmic és un esforç d'estudi interdisciplinari que tracta de trobar les propietats comunes a entitats o els sistemes, que es presenten en tots els nivells de la realitat, però que són objectiu tradicionalment de disciplines acadèmiques diferents. La seva posada en marxa s'atribueix al biòleg austríac Ludwig von Bertalanffy, que va encunyar la denominació a mitjan segle xx. La théorie générale des systèmes est l'étude interdisciplinaire des systèmes. Un système est un conglomérat cohésif de parties interreliées et interdépendantes qui peuvent être d'origine naturelle ou humaine. Chaque système est délimité par l'espace et le temps, influencé par son environnement, défini par sa structure et son objectif, et exprimé par son fonctionnement. Un système peut être plus que la somme de ses parties s'il exprime une synergie ou un comportement émergent. In ambito scientifico la teoria dei sistemi, più propriamente teoria del sistema generale (definizione di Ludwig von Bertalanffy), detta anche teoria generale dei sistemi e ancora generalizzata in sistemica (systemics in inglese e systémique in francese), è un settore di studi spesso interdisciplinare, a cavallo tra matematica e scienze naturali, che si occupa dell'analisi delle proprietà e della costituzione di un sistema in quanto tale. La teoria si compone essenzialmente della teoria dei sistemi dinamici (semplici e complessi) e della teoria del controllo ed è alla base di diverse discipline come l'automatica, la robotica e la fisica cibernetica nonché lo studio tecnico-scientifico dei sistemi in generale. 체계 이론(영어: Systems theory)은 체계(system)에 대한 학제간 연구다. 체계란 서로 의존작용을 하는 부분 단위들이 통일적으로 구성되어 이루어져 있는 실체(實體)라고 말할 수 있다. 하나의 체계 속의 각 부분들은 외부환경과의 경계 안에서 존재하며 서로 영향을 주고 받으며 연결되어 있다. 체계 이론은 1930년대에 시작된 과학 발전으로 본격적으로 태동했다. 생물학의 발전은 생명이 유기체의 물리적 및 화학적 과정으로 환원되지 않고 개별 현상에서 체계로 패러다임의 전환을 낳았다. , 움베르또 마뚜라나, 프란시스코 바렐라와 같은 생물학자가 대표적이다. 독일의 사회학자인 니클라스 루만은 움베르토 마투라나와 프란시스코 바렐라가 창안한 자기생산(Autopoiesis)개념을 자신의 이론에 접목하여 사회체계이론을 만들었다. La teoría de sistemas o teoría general de sistemas (TGS) es el estudio interdisciplinario de los sistemas en general. Su propósito es estudiar los principios aplicables a los sistemas en cualquier nivel en todos los campos de la investigación. Un sistema se define como una entidad con límites y con partes interrelacionadas e interdependientes cuya suma es mayor a la suma de sus partes. El cambio de una parte del sistema afecta a las demás y, con esto, al sistema completo, generando patrones predecibles de comportamiento. El crecimiento positivo y la adaptación de un sistema dependen de cómo se ajuste este a su entorno. Además, a menudo los sistemas existen para cumplir un propósito común (una función) que también contribuye al mantenimiento del sistema y a evitar sus fallos. Systemteori är det ämnesövergripande vetenskapliga studiet av system i allmänhet. Målet är att beskriva principer, som kan tillämpas på alla typer av system på olika nivåer och inom olika vetenskaper. I systemteoretiska sammanhang används ordet ’system’ specifikt med syftning på självreglerande system, det vill säga system som korrigerar sig själva genom återkoppling. Ett system är inom denna referensram sammansatt av grupper av aktiviteter som regelmässigt berör eller påverkar varandra. Självreglerande system finns förutom i många teknologiska tillämpningar också i naturen, till exempel i de fysiologiska systemen i vår kropp, i psykologiska inlärningsprocesser, i lokala och globala ekosystem, samt i klimatet. Systeemtheorie is een multidisciplinaire theorie over de systematische beschouwing van systemen in de natuur, wetenschap en of maatschappij. Deze theorie is gericht op de complexiteit en onderlinge afhankelijkheid tussen en binnen systemen, wat in de praktijk vaak vereenvoudigd wordt door alleen naar bepaalde aspecten uit het systeem te kijken. Ze is gebaseerd op principes uit de natuurkunde, biologie en techniek en heeft haar uitwerking naar onder andere de cybernetica, filosofie, organisatiekunde, management, psychotherapie, economie en sociologie. Общая теория систем (теория систем) — научная и методологическая концепция исследования объектов, представляющих собой системы. Она тесно связана с системным подходом и является конкретизацией его принципов и методов. Первый вариант общей теории систем был выдвинут Людвигом фон Берталанфи. Его основная идея состояла в признании изоморфизма законов, управляющих функционированием системных объектов. A teoria geral de sistemas (também conhecida pela sigla, T.G.S.) surgiu com os trabalhos do biólogo austríaco Ludwig von Bertalanffy, publicados entre 1950 e 1968. A teoria geral de sistemas não busca solucionar problemas ou tentar soluções práticas, mas sim produzir teorias e formulações conceituais que possam criar condições de aplicação na realidade empírica. Os pressupostos básicos da teoria geral de sistemas são: Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of systems, i.e. cohesive groups of interrelated, interdependent components that can be natural or human-made. Every system has causal boundaries, is influenced by its context, defined by its structure, function and role, and expressed through its relations with other systems. A system is "more than the sum of its parts" by expressing synergy or emergent behavior. Teorie systémů je interdisciplinární obor, ve kterém se základní aspekty a principy systémů používají k popisu a vysvětlení různě složitých jevů. Tak rozmanité oblasti a modely jako sluneční soustava, biologické buňky, lidé, rodina, organizace, stát, ale také stroje a počítačové sítě lze chápat jako systémy a popsat je z hlediska teorie systémů. Kognitivní procesy rozpoznávání a řešení problémů, které odkazují na koncepty teorie systémů, se často označují jako systémové myšlení. Teoria systemów – interdyscyplinarna nauka o systemach. Pierwotnie była teorią biologiczną, następnie została rozwinięta i poszerzona przez matematyków, informatyków, socjologów, psychologów, filozofów, cybernetyków, ekonomistów i inżynierów. Ostatnio staje się też punktem odniesienia w kognitywistyce. Dąży do coraz to szerszych uogólnień jako „systemika” (ang. systemics) lub „ogólna teoria systemów”. W psychologii w latach 60. rozwinął się nurt psychologii systemowej, służący głównie terapii systemowej rodzin. نظرية الأنظمة هي دراسة متعددة التخصصات للأنظمة. النظام هو عبارة عن مجموعة متماسكة من الأجزاء المترابطة والمعتمدة على بعضها والتي تكون إما طبيعية أو من صنع الإنسان. يُحدّد كل نظام من خلال حدوده المكانية والزمانية، مُحاطًا ومُتأثرًا ببيئته، موصوفًا بهيكليته والهدف منه أو طبيعته ومعبَّرًا عنه بعمله. يمكن أن يكون النظام أكثر تأثيرًا من مجموع أجزائه إذا أظهرت تلك الأجزاء تآزرًا أو سلوكًا ناشئًا. يؤثر تغيير جزء واحد من النظام عادةً على الأجزاء الأخرى وعلى النظام بأكمله مع وجود أنماط سلوك يمكن التنبؤ بها. بالنسبة للأنظمة ذاتية التعلم والتكيف من تلقاء نفسها، يعتمد النمو الإيجابي والتكيف على مدى ضبط النظام مع بيئته. تعمل بعض الأنظمة بشكل أساسي على دعم الأنظمة الأخرى من خلال المساعدة في صيانة النظام الآخر لمنع فشله. الهدف من نظرية الأنظمة هو اكتشاف منهجي لديناميكا النظام وقيوده وحالاته ومبادئه التوض
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dbo:abstract: نظرية الأنظمة هي دراسة متعددة التخصصات للأنظمة. النظام هو عبارة عن مجموعة متماسكة من الأجزاء المترابطة والمعتمدة على بعضها والتي تكون إما طبيعية أو من صنع الإنسان. يُحدّد كل نظام من خلال حدوده المكانية والزمانية، مُحاطًا ومُتأثرًا ببيئته، موصوفًا بهيكليته والهدف منه أو طبيعته ومعبَّرًا عنه بعمله. يمكن أن يكون النظام أكثر تأثيرًا من مجموع أجزائه إذا أظهرت تلك الأجزاء تآزرًا أو سلوكًا ناشئًا. يؤثر تغيير جزء واحد من النظام عادةً على الأجزاء الأخرى وعلى النظام بأكمله مع وجود أنماط سلوك يمكن التنبؤ بها. بالنسبة للأنظمة ذاتية التعلم والتكيف من تلقاء نفسها، يعتمد النمو الإيجابي والتكيف على مدى ضبط النظام مع بيئته. تعمل بعض الأنظمة بشكل أساسي على دعم الأنظمة الأخرى من خلال المساعدة في صيانة النظام الآخر لمنع فشله. الهدف من نظرية الأنظمة هو اكتشاف منهجي لديناميكا النظام وقيوده وحالاته ومبادئه التوضيحية (الهدف، القياس، الطرائق، الأدوات، إلخ.) التي يمكن تمييزها وتطبيقها على الأنظمة في كل مستوى ضمن الآخر، وفي كل مجال لتحقيق الاتزان الأمثل. تدور نظرية الأنظمة العامة حول مفاهيم ومبادئ قابلة للتطبيق على نطاق واسع، على عكس المفاهيم والمبادئ التي تنطبق على مجال واحد من المعرفة. تميّز هذه النظرية الأنظمة الديناميكية أو النشطة عن الأنظمة الثابتة أو غير الفاعلة (المنفعلة). الأنظمة النشطة هي بنى فعالة أو مكونات تتفاعل في السلوكيات والعمليات. الأنظمة غير الفاعلة هي البنى والمكونات التي تتم معالجتها. على سبيل المثال، يكون البرنامج غير فعال عندما يكون ملف على قرص وفعالًا عند تشغيله في الذاكرة. يرتبط المجال بالتفكير النظمي ومنطق الحاسب وهندسة الأنظمة. Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of systems, i.e. cohesive groups of interrelated, interdependent components that can be natural or human-made. Every system has causal boundaries, is influenced by its context, defined by its structure, function and role, and expressed through its relations with other systems. A system is "more than the sum of its parts" by expressing synergy or emergent behavior. Changing one component of a system may affect other components or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of adaptation depend upon how well the system is engaged with its environment and other contexts influencing its organization. Some systems support other systems, maintaining the other system to prevent failure. The goals of systems theory are to model a system's dynamics, constraints, conditions, and relations; and to elucidate principles (such as purpose, measure, methods, tools) that can be discerned and applied to other systems at every level of nesting, and in a wide range of fields for achieving optimized equifinality. General systems theory is about developing broadly applicable concepts and principles, as opposed to concepts and principles specific to one domain of knowledge. It distinguishes dynamic or active systems from static or passive systems. Active systems are activity structures or components that interact in behaviours and processes or interrelate through formal contextual boundary conditions (attractors). Passive systems are structures and components that are being processed. For example, a program is passive when it is a disc file and active when it runs in memory. The field is related to systems thinking, machine logic, and systems engineering. In ambito scientifico la teoria dei sistemi, più propriamente teoria del sistema generale (definizione di Ludwig von Bertalanffy), detta anche teoria generale dei sistemi e ancora generalizzata in sistemica (systemics in inglese e systémique in francese), è un settore di studi spesso interdisciplinare, a cavallo tra matematica e scienze naturali, che si occupa dell'analisi delle proprietà e della costituzione di un sistema in quanto tale. La teoria si compone essenzialmente della teoria dei sistemi dinamici (semplici e complessi) e della teoria del controllo ed è alla base di diverse discipline come l'automatica, la robotica e la fisica cibernetica nonché lo studio tecnico-scientifico dei sistemi in generale. La théorie générale des systèmes est l'étude interdisciplinaire des systèmes. Un système est un conglomérat cohésif de parties interreliées et interdépendantes qui peuvent être d'origine naturelle ou humaine. Chaque système est délimité par l'espace et le temps, influencé par son environnement, défini par sa structure et son objectif, et exprimé par son fonctionnement. Un système peut être plus que la somme de ses parties s'il exprime une synergie ou un comportement émergent. La modification d'une partie d'un système peut affecter d'autres parties ou l'ensemble du système. Il peut être possible de prévoir ces changements dans les schémas de comportement. Pour les systèmes qui apprennent et s'adaptent, la croissance et le degré d'adaptation dépendent de la façon dont le système est engagé avec son environnement. Certains systèmes prennent en charge d'autres systèmes, en conservant l'autre système pour éviter les pannes. Les objectifs de la théorie des systèmes sont de modéliser la dynamique, les contraintes, les conditions d'un système et d'élucider des principes (tels que le but, la mesure, les méthodes, les outils) qui peuvent être discernés et appliqués à d'autres systèmes à tous les niveaux d'imbrication, et dans un large gamme de domaines pour obtenir une équifinalité optimisée. La théorie générale des systèmes consiste à développer des concepts et des principes largement applicables, par opposition aux concepts et principes spécifiques à un domaine de la connaissance. Il distingue les systèmes dynamiques ou actifs des systèmes statiques ou passifs. Les systèmes actifs sont des structures d'activité ou des composants qui interagissent dans les comportements et les processus. Les systèmes passifs sont des structures et des composants en cours de traitement. Par exemple, un programme est passif lorsqu'il s'agit d'un fichier disque et actif lorsqu'il s'exécute en mémoire. Le domaine est lié à la pensée systémique, à la logique machine et à l'ingénierie des systèmes. Общая теория систем (теория систем) — научная и методологическая концепция исследования объектов, представляющих собой системы. Она тесно связана с системным подходом и является конкретизацией его принципов и методов. Первый вариант общей теории систем был выдвинут Людвигом фон Берталанфи. Его основная идея состояла в признании изоморфизма законов, управляющих функционированием системных объектов. Современные исследования в общей теории систем должны интегрировать наработки, накопленные в областях «классической» общей теории систем, кибернетики, системного анализа, исследования операций, системной инженерии и синергетики. La teoria general de sistemes, teoria de sistemes, teoria sistèmica, enfocament sistèmic o pensament sistèmic és un esforç d'estudi interdisciplinari que tracta de trobar les propietats comunes a entitats o els sistemes, que es presenten en tots els nivells de la realitat, però que són objectiu tradicionalment de disciplines acadèmiques diferents. La seva posada en marxa s'atribueix al biòleg austríac Ludwig von Bertalanffy, que va encunyar la denominació a mitjan segle xx. Systeemtheorie is een multidisciplinaire theorie over de systematische beschouwing van systemen in de natuur, wetenschap en of maatschappij. Deze theorie is gericht op de complexiteit en onderlinge afhankelijkheid tussen en binnen systemen, wat in de praktijk vaak vereenvoudigd wordt door alleen naar bepaalde aspecten uit het systeem te kijken. Ze is gebaseerd op principes uit de natuurkunde, biologie en techniek en heeft haar uitwerking naar onder andere de cybernetica, filosofie, organisatiekunde, management, psychotherapie, economie en sociologie. 一般系統理論（英語：General systems theory），是所有系統理論（Systems theory）之基礎，用來解釋生物現象。生物體中的有機體(Organism)是個具有各種相互依存的故不分系統，而且每個系統又包含了一些次級系統，例如循環系統，在平常生活中人類社會也有自創的社會系統，例如運輸系統。一般系統理論的學說大致如下： A teoria geral de sistemas (também conhecida pela sigla, T.G.S.) surgiu com os trabalhos do biólogo austríaco Ludwig von Bertalanffy, publicados entre 1950 e 1968. A teoria geral de sistemas não busca solucionar problemas ou tentar soluções práticas, mas sim produzir teorias e formulações conceituais que possam criar condições de aplicação na realidade empírica. Os pressupostos básicos da teoria geral de sistemas são: * Existe uma nítida tendência para a integração entre as ciências naturais e sociais; * Essa integração parece orientar-se rumo a uma teoria dos sistemas; * Essa teoria de sistemas pode ser uma maneira mais abrangente de estudar os campos não físicos do conhecimento científico, especialmente as ciências sociais; * Essa teoria de sistemas, ao desenvolver princípios unificadores que atravessam verticalmente os universos particulares das diversas ciências envolvidas, aproxima-nos do objetivo da unidade da ciência; * Isso pode levar a uma integração muito necessária da educação científica. A importância da teoria geral de sistemas é significativa tendo em vista a necessidade de se avaliar a organização como um todo e não somente em departamentos ou setores.O mais importante ou tanto quanto é a identificação do maior número de variáveis possíveis, externas e internas que, de alguma forma, influenciam em todo o processo existente na organização.Outro fator também de significativa importância é o feedback que deve ser realizado ao planejamento de todo o processo. Teoria dos sistemas começou a ser aplicada na Administração principalmente em função da necessidade de uma síntese e uma maior integração das teorias anteriores (científicas e relações humanas, estruturalista e comportamental oriundas das ciências sociais) e da intensificação do uso da cibernética e da tecnologia da informação nas empresas. Os sistemas vivos, sejam indivíduos ou organizações, são analisados como "sistema abertos", mantendo um continuo intercâmbio de matéria/energia/informação com o ambiente. A teoria de sistema permite reconceituar os fenômenos em uma abordagem global, permitindo a inter-relação e integração de assuntos que são, na maioria das vezes, de natureza completamente diferentes. 一般システム理論（いっぱん-りろん、General System Theory (GST)）は、ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ベルタランフィが、生命現象に対する機械論を排して唱えた理論である。 20世紀前半に提唱された、現象のマクロな挙動を直接的にモデル化して扱う科学理論のことである。史上初めて科学で非線形現象を説明可能にし、現代のハイテク製品を支えるシステム工学やコンピュータシステムの設計にも応用された。例えば、航空機や情報システムなどの設計で作成されるブロック図，データフロー図はシステム理論の実践である。ソフトウェアの入出力なども、システム理論で言う所の入出力に対応する。 19世紀までの近代科学では、原子1つ1つの挙動の寄せ集めで全ての現象を説明可能とする要素還元主義が一般的(つまりは全ての現象が線型という扱い)であり、3つ以上の原子が相互作用して起きる非線型な現象を形而上学の概念である「全体性」として説明してきた。近代科学の時代は、非線形現象について、あたかも科学的に説明出来ない「生気」が物質に付随するかのように捉えられており、「生気」の実在を巡って激しい論争が起きていた。 20世紀に入って、物理学に帰着した説明を行う要素還元主義の下で各分野の理論が成熟して来ると、各学術分野において、異分野の議論に同じような説明が多数存在する事が判明し始めた。この似た部分を抽出し、モデル化を行うことで、物理学に帰着しなくても現象の科学的な説明が行える可能性が出て来たと同時に、要素還元主義で「生気」と呼ばれた現象の客観的な説明可能性も見えてきた。その様な機運の高まりの中で、ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ベルタランフィにより、全体性の内実について、生物の構造をモデルとした有機構成による科学的な説明が行われ、多数の賛同者を集めると共に、生気論は影を潜めて行った。生物以外も含めた理論適用の過程で、全体性を支配する法則をシステムと呼び始めた。システム理論の提唱により、全体性も科学的に説明可能となり、複雑系や自己組織化現象等、非線型な現象まで科学的にモデル化し、理解できるようになった。また、システム理論は、分野を跨いで同型な議論を再利用できるようにし、科学的な議論の効率化にも大きく貢献した。 1950年代に提唱者のルートヴィヒ・フォン・ベルタランフィを中心として、アナトール・ラポポート、ケネス・E・ボールディング、ウィリアム・ロス・アシュビー、マーガレット・ミード、グレゴリー・ベイトソンなど異なる分野の者たちが学際的な情報交換を目的として集まった「メイシー会議」で新しい学術分野の一つとして捉えられるようになった。線型な現象のみを扱う近代科学(特に要素還元主義)の時代が終焉を迎えたと共に、非線型な現象の機構を解明して利用する現代科学の時代が始まった。その後にブロック図で観測対象の構造を整理する手法が現れ、自動制御の設計が容易になった。以降の時代には(特に1960年代以降は)、システム的なアプローチを取らなければ設計が不可能な、非線形性を前提とした高度な自動制御機構(オートメーション,コンピュータシステム等)が次々と実用化され、高度な自動制御機構を前提とする現代社会を形成して行った。その過程で、システムエンジニアと言う職業が台頭した。その後、マイクロプロセッサの指数関数的な高性能化に伴い、1990年代からニューラルネットワーク、ファジィ、カオスの応用が急速に広まり出した。特にカオスは、天気予報やオートメーションから無線通信や光ファイバの高速化まで、現代社会を成立させる上で不可欠な理論として幅広く応用されている。最新のシステム理論はオートポイエーシスであり、クオリアのような主観現象の説明を試みている。 La teoría de sistemas o teoría general de sistemas (TGS) es el estudio interdisciplinario de los sistemas en general. Su propósito es estudiar los principios aplicables a los sistemas en cualquier nivel en todos los campos de la investigación. Un sistema se define como una entidad con límites y con partes interrelacionadas e interdependientes cuya suma es mayor a la suma de sus partes. El cambio de una parte del sistema afecta a las demás y, con esto, al sistema completo, generando patrones predecibles de comportamiento. El crecimiento positivo y la adaptación de un sistema dependen de cómo se ajuste este a su entorno. Además, a menudo los sistemas existen para cumplir un propósito común (una función) que también contribuye al mantenimiento del sistema y a evitar sus fallos. El objetivo de la teoría de sistemas es el descubrimiento sistemático de las dinámicas, restricciones y condiciones de un sistema, así como de principios (propósitos, medidas, métodos, herramientas, etc.) que puedan ser discernidos y aplicados a los sistemas en cualquier nivel de anidación y en cualquier campo, con el objetivo de lograr una equifinalidad optimizada. La teoría general de sistemas trata sobre conceptos y principios de amplia aplicación, al contrario de aquellos que se aplican en un dominio particular del conocimiento. Distingue los sistemas dinámicos o activos de los estáticos o pasivos. Los primeros son estructuras o componentes de actividad que interactúan en comportamientos o procesos, mientras que los segundos son estructuras o componentes que están siendo procesados. Теорія систем (загальна теорія систем) — спеціально-наукова і логіко-методологічна концепція дослідження об'єктів, які є системами. З розвитком системології теорія систем набула необхідної уніфікації та універсальності, вичерпної однозначності та завершеності. До цілей дослідження в рамках теорії систем належить вивчення: * різновиди і критерії типів об'єктів-систем, модельних та псевдосистем; * основ та принципів системності об'єктів та системогенезу, * дослідження, проектування та управління системами; * функціонування і розвиток систем-об'єктів; * дослідження та прогнозування натурних систем. Teorie systémů je interdisciplinární obor, ve kterém se základní aspekty a principy systémů používají k popisu a vysvětlení různě složitých jevů. Tak rozmanité oblasti a modely jako sluneční soustava, biologické buňky, lidé, rodina, organizace, stát, ale také stroje a počítačové sítě lze chápat jako systémy a popsat je z hlediska teorie systémů. Kognitivní procesy rozpoznávání a řešení problémů, které odkazují na koncepty teorie systémů, se často označují jako systémové myšlení. Analýza struktur, dynamiky a funkcí by měla umožnit komplexnější pohled a realističtější předpovědi chování systému. Systémově teoretické termíny se používají v nejrůznějších vědních oborech. „Teorie systémů od počátku sledovala cíl působit proti fragmentaci znalostí ve vědních oborech.“ Teorie systémů je obecnou a nezávislou disciplínou i široce rozvětveným a heterogenním rámcem pro interdisciplinární diskurs, který používá pojem systém jako základní koncept. V důsledku toho existuje jak obecná „systémová teorie“, tak velké množství různých, někdy protichůdných a konkurenčních systémových definic a pojmů. Již se však objevila relativně stabilní řada pojmů a teorií, o které se systémově teoretický diskurz opírá. Systemtheorie ist eine interdisziplinäre Betrachtungsweise, in der grundlegende Aspekte und Prinzipien von Systemen zur Beschreibung und Erklärung unterschiedlich komplexer Phänomene herangezogen werden. So verschiedene Gegenstandsbereiche und Modelle wie das Sonnensystem, biologische Zellen, der Mensch, eine Familie, eine Organisation, ein Staat, aber auch Maschinen und Computernetzwerke können als Systeme aufgefasst und systemtheoretisch beschrieben werden. Kognitive Prozesse des Erkennens und Problemlösens, die auf Konzepte der Systemtheorie Bezug nehmen, werden oft unter dem Begriff Systemdenken zusammengefasst. Die Analyse von Strukturen, Dynamiken und Funktionen soll eine umfassendere Sicht ermöglichen und realistischere Vorhersagen über das Systemverhalten erlauben. Systemtheoretische Begriffe werden in den verschiedensten wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen angewandt. „Die Systemtheorie hat von Anfang an das Ziel verfolgt, der Zersplitterung des Wissens in den wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen entgegenzuwirken.“ Die Systemtheorie ist sowohl eine allgemeine und eigenständige Disziplin als auch ein weitverzweigter und heterogener Rahmen für einen interdisziplinären Diskurs, der den Begriff System als Grundkonzept führt. Es gibt folglich sowohl eine allgemeine „Systemtheorie“ als auch eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher, zum Teil widersprüchlicher und konkurrierender Systemdefinitionen und -begriffe. Es hat sich heute jedoch eine relativ stabile Reihe an Begriffen und Theoremen herausgebildet, auf die sich der systemtheoretische Diskurs bezieht. Teoria systemów – interdyscyplinarna nauka o systemach. Pierwotnie była teorią biologiczną, następnie została rozwinięta i poszerzona przez matematyków, informatyków, socjologów, psychologów, filozofów, cybernetyków, ekonomistów i inżynierów. Ostatnio staje się też punktem odniesienia w kognitywistyce. Dąży do coraz to szerszych uogólnień jako „systemika” (ang. systemics) lub „ogólna teoria systemów”. Obecnie teoria ta aspiruje do całościowego tłumaczenia funkcjonowania organizmów żywych, społeczeństw i urządzeń/systemów sztucznych, co z jednej strony czyni ją uniwersalną, z drugiej jest przedmiotem krytyki za jej zbytnią ogólność i abstrakcyjność. Potrzeba jednolitego ujęcia systemowego zrodziła się w latach 30. XX wieku. Istotny wkład w powstanie i rozwój ujęcia systemowego mieli m.in. matematyk Norbert Wiener (twórca cybernetyki), Shannon oraz oraz biolog Walter Cannon. Za twórcę teorii systemów uznaje się Ludwiga von Bertalanffy'ego. W 1954 roku Bertalanffy założył Society for General Systems Theory. Pod koniec lat 30. XX wieku w socjologii rozwijana była teoria systemów przez Pitrima Sorokina, a następnie przez Talcotta Parsonsa. W latach 60. i 70. XX wieku nastąpiło odejście od koncepcji systemowych ze względu na silne wpływy filozofii antypozytywistycznej, w szczególności postmodernizmu i koncepcji humanistycznych. Obecnie teoria systemów w socjologii rozwijana była m.in. przez Niklasa Luhmanna. W psychologii w latach 60. rozwinął się nurt psychologii systemowej, służący głównie terapii systemowej rodzin. Pomimo swoich uniwersalistycznych celów, jak do tej pory, nie istnieje jedna jednolita i ogólnie uznana teoria systemów ale wiele, mniej lub bardziej podobnych podejść do jej generalizacji, poczynając od filozofii na inżynierii kończąc. Najbliższe do takiej teorii lub metateorii są: teoria samoorganizujących się systemów, Autopoiesis – system autopoietyczny (Francisco Varela, Humberto Maturana, Niklas Luhmann) i metateoria uporządkowania wiedzy bazująca na pojęciu inteligencji, TOGA (ang) (Adam Maria Gadomski). Według opracowania Świętochowskiego, podejście systemowe wyraża się na kilku poziomach ogólności: 1. * abstrakcyjna filozofia systemów, na którą składa się: 2. * idea całościowości, która zastępuje proste mechanistyczne i analityczne modele nauki pozytywistycznej, 3. * idea przyczynowości cyrkularnej, która zastępuje proste modele jednokierunkowej, liniowej przyczynowości, 4. * stosowana perspektywa systemowa, występująca w specyficznych postaciach na gruncie konkretnych nauk (np. ogólna zasada systemowa: sprzężenia zwrotne, zasada ta na gruncie psychologii – wzmocnienie), 5. * technologia systemów – praktyczne zastosowania teorii systemowej, np. systemowa terapia rodzin w dziedzinie psychologii rodziny. Systemteori är det ämnesövergripande vetenskapliga studiet av system i allmänhet. Målet är att beskriva principer, som kan tillämpas på alla typer av system på olika nivåer och inom olika vetenskaper. I systemteoretiska sammanhang används ordet ’system’ specifikt med syftning på självreglerande system, det vill säga system som korrigerar sig själva genom återkoppling. Ett system är inom denna referensram sammansatt av grupper av aktiviteter som regelmässigt berör eller påverkar varandra. Självreglerande system finns förutom i många teknologiska tillämpningar också i naturen, till exempel i de fysiologiska systemen i vår kropp, i psykologiska inlärningsprocesser, i lokala och globala ekosystem, samt i klimatet. Systemteori kan betraktas som en specialisering och precisering av systemtänkande eller en generalisering av systemvetenskap. Själva termen har sitt ursprung i den generella systemteori som Ludwig von Bertalanffy utarbetade med utgångspunkt från biologins område, och som senare vidareutvecklades inom sociologin av Talcott Parsons och Niklas Luhmann. Systemteorins tvärvetenskapliga karaktär gör att principer sammanförs från många vetenskapsområden, så som vetenskapsteori, fysik, informatik, biologi, ekologi, ingenjörsvetenskap, geografi, sociologi, autopoiesis, statsvetenskap, ekonomi, psykologi och filosofisk ontologi. Matematisk analys av dynamiska system och kaosteori är grenar av matematiken som utnyttjas systemteoretiskt. Det ligger i systemteorins karaktär att teorin utvecklas genom analys av de system som studeras. När systemteoretiska begrepp och principer tillämpas inom olika vetenskaper medför detta också att teorin utvecklas och prövas. Inom ekologin har bland andra , Eugene Odum och Fritjof Capra arbetat med systemteori. Karl W. Deutsch förnyade den statsvetenskapliga metodologin med hjälp av systemteori. Ilya Prigogine studerade emergens och komplexa system inom kemin och fick Nobelpriset för detta år 1977. Inom arkeologin införde David Leonard Clarke kvantitativ metodik baserad på systemteori. Peter Senge är en systemteoretiker inom organisationsteorin. 체계 이론(영어: Systems theory)은 체계(system)에 대한 학제간 연구다. 체계란 서로 의존작용을 하는 부분 단위들이 통일적으로 구성되어 이루어져 있는 실체(實體)라고 말할 수 있다. 하나의 체계 속의 각 부분들은 외부환경과의 경계 안에서 존재하며 서로 영향을 주고 받으며 연결되어 있다. 체계 이론은 1930년대에 시작된 과학 발전으로 본격적으로 태동했다. 생물학의 발전은 생명이 유기체의 물리적 및 화학적 과정으로 환원되지 않고 개별 현상에서 체계로 패러다임의 전환을 낳았다. , 움베르또 마뚜라나, 프란시스코 바렐라와 같은 생물학자가 대표적이다. 독일의 사회학자인 니클라스 루만은 움베르토 마투라나와 프란시스코 바렐라가 창안한 자기생산(Autopoiesis)개념을 자신의 이론에 접목하여 사회체계이론을 만들었다.
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