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Philosophy of perception فلسفة الإدراك Philosophie de la perception Percezione (filosofia) 지각 (철학) Filosofia da percepção 知覚の哲学 Filosofía de la percepción
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La philosophie de la perception est une branche de la philosophie de l'esprit et de la philosophie de la connaissance qui tente de comprendre la nature des expériences perceptives et la façon dont elles se rapportent aux croyances ou à la connaissance du monde. Deux questions retiennent alors spécialement l'attention des philosophes de l'esprit contemporains concernant la perception : celle de la nature des contenus de perception, et celle du rapport entre la perception et la connaissance. 知覚の哲学(philosophy of perception)とは、知覚経験の本性についての哲学的研究である。 知覚の哲学を知覚についての科学的研究から区別するものとして、次の二つの特徴が挙げられる。 つまり、知覚の哲学的研究は、知覚経験の現象的性格(phenomenal character)と認識論的役割を主に扱うものであり、そのどちらも科学的に研究するのが原理的に難しいものだとされる。知覚経験の現象的性格とは、ある知覚経験をもつことがその経験主体にとってどのようなことであるか(what it is like for a subject to have a perceptual experience)を特徴づける経験の性質のことである。こうした知覚経験の一人称的特徴は、本質的に三人称的である科学的枠組みでは捉えられないものとされる。 たとえば、知覚経験の現象的性格が内在的か外在的か(知覚経験の現象的性格は経験主体の脳状態によって決定されるのか、外的な要素も関与してくるのか)という点や、それが表象的か非表象的か(知覚経験の現象的性格は世界のあり方を表すようなものなのかどうか)という点が問題となる。また、私たちが知覚経験を通じて世界についての知識を得るというのは確かだと思われるが、知覚経験がどのような仕方でそうした知識獲得に貢献しているのかは明らかではない。特に、知覚経験は私たちの信念を正当化するために用いられるように思われるが、そうした正当化的役割を純粋に科学的な枠組みで扱うのは困難であるとされる。私たちが世界について知るために知覚経験が果たす貢献の仕方を特定することも、知覚の哲学における重要な研究テーマである。 A filosofia da percepção é uma área da filosofia que se dedica à natureza da experiência sensorial e perceptiva, o estatuto daquilo que é dado em tais experiências, e em particular à maneira como as crenças ou o conhecimento acerca do mundo físico podem ser baseados e justificados nessa base. Qualquer relato explícito da percepção requer um compromisso com uma variedade de visões ontológicas ou metafísicas. فلسفة الإدراك تتعلق بطبيعة التجربة الإدراكية وحالة البيانات الإدراكية، ولا سيما كيفية ارتباطها بمعتقدات العالم أو بالمعرفة الخاصة به. أي حساب صريح من الإدراك يتطلب الالتزام لواحد من مجموعة متنوعة من الآراء الأنطولوجية أو الميتافيزيقية. يميز الفلاسفة الحسابات الداخلية، التي تفترض أن تصورات الأشياء، والمعرفة أو المعتقدات المتعلقة بها، هي جوانب من ذهن الفرد، والحسابات الخارجية، التي تنص على أنها تشكل جوانب حقيقية للعالم الخارجي للفرد. إن موقف الواقعية الساذجة—الانطباع «اليومي» للأشياء المادية التي تشكل ما ينظر إليه—يتعارض إلى حد ما مع حدوث الأوهام الإدراكية والهلوسة ونسبية التجربة الإدراكية فضلا عن رؤى معينة في العلم. والمفاهيم الواقعية تشمل الظاهراتية والواقعية المباشرة وغير المباشرة. والمفاهيم المناهضة للواقعية تشمل المثالية والشكوكية. La filosofía de la percepción estudia cómo y en qué medida los procesos mentales y signos dependen del mundo interno y externo para ser percibidos. Nuestra percepción del mundo exterior inicia con los sentidos, que nos permiten generar conceptos empíricos que representan nuestro alrededor, con un parámetro mental que complementa a los ya existentes (conceptos). La percepción modifica el punto de vista del mundo, así que su estudio es importante para el mejor entendimiento de la comunicación, el yo, el ello, yo y superyó e inclusive la realidad. La percezione nella filosofia moderna riguarda l'organizzazione e l'interpretazione dei dati sensibili coscienti, di quelli provenienti dall'esterno e di quelli che si originano dalla nostra sensibilità interna, che portino, tramite un'esperienza complessa, alla conoscenza di un oggetto mentale o fisico, distinto dal soggetto percipiente. Raffigurazione del modo in cui, secondo Cartesio, la mente prende coscienza delle percezioni sensorie tramite la ghiandola pineale. The philosophy of perception is concerned with the nature of perceptual experience and the status of perceptual data, in particular how they relate to beliefs about, or knowledge of, the world. Any explicit account of perception requires a commitment to one of a variety of ontological or metaphysical views. Philosophers distinguish internalist accounts, which assume that perceptions of objects, and knowledge or beliefs about them, are aspects of an individual's mind, and externalist accounts, which state that they constitute real aspects of the world external to the individual. The position of naïve realism—the 'everyday' impression of physical objects constituting what is perceived—is to some extent contradicted by the occurrence of perceptual illusions and hallucinations and the relativi 지각(Philosophy of perception)은 사람이 세상에 관한 믿음과 지식으로 연관시키는 방법에 있어서 영속적인 경험의 성질과 영속적인 정보의 상태에 관한 것을 말한다. 지각 (심리학)에 대한 자세한 설명은 다양한 목적론적이거나 형이상학적인 관점 중의 하나에 집중해야 한다.
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知覚の哲学(philosophy of perception)とは、知覚経験の本性についての哲学的研究である。 知覚の哲学を知覚についての科学的研究から区別するものとして、次の二つの特徴が挙げられる。 つまり、知覚の哲学的研究は、知覚経験の現象的性格(phenomenal character)と認識論的役割を主に扱うものであり、そのどちらも科学的に研究するのが原理的に難しいものだとされる。知覚経験の現象的性格とは、ある知覚経験をもつことがその経験主体にとってどのようなことであるか(what it is like for a subject to have a perceptual experience)を特徴づける経験の性質のことである。こうした知覚経験の一人称的特徴は、本質的に三人称的である科学的枠組みでは捉えられないものとされる。 たとえば、知覚経験の現象的性格が内在的か外在的か(知覚経験の現象的性格は経験主体の脳状態によって決定されるのか、外的な要素も関与してくるのか)という点や、それが表象的か非表象的か(知覚経験の現象的性格は世界のあり方を表すようなものなのかどうか)という点が問題となる。また、私たちが知覚経験を通じて世界についての知識を得るというのは確かだと思われるが、知覚経験がどのような仕方でそうした知識獲得に貢献しているのかは明らかではない。特に、知覚経験は私たちの信念を正当化するために用いられるように思われるが、そうした正当化的役割を純粋に科学的な枠組みで扱うのは困難であるとされる。私たちが世界について知るために知覚経験が果たす貢献の仕方を特定することも、知覚の哲学における重要な研究テーマである。 La filosofía de la percepción estudia cómo y en qué medida los procesos mentales y signos dependen del mundo interno y externo para ser percibidos. Nuestra percepción del mundo exterior inicia con los sentidos, que nos permiten generar conceptos empíricos que representan nuestro alrededor, con un parámetro mental que complementa a los ya existentes (conceptos). La percepción modifica el punto de vista del mundo, así que su estudio es importante para el mejor entendimiento de la comunicación, el yo, el ello, yo y superyó e inclusive la realidad. Mientras que René Descartes concluía que la pregunta ¿Yo existo? puede ser únicamente resuelta afirmativamente (cogito ergo sum), la psicología freudiana sugiere que la percepción es una ilusión del ego y no puede confiarse en ella para decidir que es real. Tales preguntas continúan. «¿Nuestras percepciones nos permiten experimentar el mundo cual realmente es?» «¿Podremos conocer otro punto de vista diferente al que conocemos?» فلسفة الإدراك تتعلق بطبيعة التجربة الإدراكية وحالة البيانات الإدراكية، ولا سيما كيفية ارتباطها بمعتقدات العالم أو بالمعرفة الخاصة به. أي حساب صريح من الإدراك يتطلب الالتزام لواحد من مجموعة متنوعة من الآراء الأنطولوجية أو الميتافيزيقية. يميز الفلاسفة الحسابات الداخلية، التي تفترض أن تصورات الأشياء، والمعرفة أو المعتقدات المتعلقة بها، هي جوانب من ذهن الفرد، والحسابات الخارجية، التي تنص على أنها تشكل جوانب حقيقية للعالم الخارجي للفرد. إن موقف الواقعية الساذجة—الانطباع «اليومي» للأشياء المادية التي تشكل ما ينظر إليه—يتعارض إلى حد ما مع حدوث الأوهام الإدراكية والهلوسة ونسبية التجربة الإدراكية فضلا عن رؤى معينة في العلم. والمفاهيم الواقعية تشمل الظاهراتية والواقعية المباشرة وغير المباشرة. والمفاهيم المناهضة للواقعية تشمل المثالية والشكوكية. La percezione nella filosofia moderna riguarda l'organizzazione e l'interpretazione dei dati sensibili coscienti, di quelli provenienti dall'esterno e di quelli che si originano dalla nostra sensibilità interna, che portino, tramite un'esperienza complessa, alla conoscenza di un oggetto mentale o fisico, distinto dal soggetto percipiente. Raffigurazione del modo in cui, secondo Cartesio, la mente prende coscienza delle percezioni sensorie tramite la ghiandola pineale. Secondo Cartesio (1596-1650) bisogna distinguere le percezioni causate dall'anima, determinate dalla volontà, dall'immaginazione e dal pensiero per cui proviamo sentimenti (come gioia, collera ecc.), rispetto a quelle che invece provengono dal corpo, che a loro volta si distinguono in * quelle provocate dai corpi esterni, cioè «quando riportiamo la percezione a cose fuori di noi», * quelle causate dal nostro stesso corpo (come le sensazioni di fame, sete ecc.) John Locke (1632-1704) intende la percezione nel significato più generico di quella attività mentale che ci permette di riferire una molteplicità di dati sensibili a un oggetto esterno a noi. La conoscenza risulta quindi come «la percezione delle connessioni e dell'accordo o disaccordo (rifiuto) di ogni possibile idea». Per Leibniz (1646-1716) la percezione è intesa nel senso cartesiano di idea, cioè «qualcosa che è nella mente» distinguendola dal nuovo concetto da lui introdotto di appercezione usato per definire la "percezione della percezione", ossia la percezione massima perché situata al più alto livello di autocoscienza. È soltanto negli organismi superiori, però, e in particolare nell'uomo, che le percezioni giungono a diventare coscienti, cioè ad essere appercepite: l'uomo infatti riesce a coglierle unitariamente nella loro molteplicità, sommandole e componendole in una visione sintetica, come fossero tessere di un mosaico. In ciò consiste propriamente l'appercezione, che significa in definitiva "accorgersi"; ad esempio: il rumore del mare è il risultato del rumore delle piccole onde che essendo piccole percezioni noi assimiliamo inconsciamente fino a sviluppare la "percezione della percezione". Per George Berkeley (1685-1753) tutta la realtà si risolve nella percezione senza la quale non si avrebbe conoscenza delle cose: «esse est percepi» per cui della realtà possiamo affermare che è percepita ma non che esista in se stessa: David Hume (1711-1776) afferma che la percezione è «tutto ciò che può essere presente nella mente sia che esercitiamo i nostri sensi, sia che siamo mossi dalle passioni o che esercitiamo il pensiero e la riflessione.» . Thomas Reid (1710-1796) confutando nell'opera Ricerca dello spirito umano secondo i princìpi del senso comune (1765), la teoria risalente a Cartesio, Locke e Hume che sosteneva che l'oggetto immediato della conoscenza umana non sono le cose, bensì le idee, ha distinto la percezione dalla sensazione caratterizzando quest'ultima come l'apprensione cosciente di dati sensibili. Quelle percezioni che il "senso comune" riconosce come vere, quel sentimento, cioè, per il quale tutti credono nella reale esistenza delle cose e del proprio io, rende impossibile il dubbio cartesiano. La percezione è un'attività complessa che elabora una molteplicità di sensazioni e che si conclude con un giudizio riferito a un oggetto. Questo aspetto della percezione sarà al centro della gnoseologia di Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) che identifica la percezione con l'intuizione intesa come risultato dell'elaborazione dei dati sensibili secondo giudizi a priori. La concezione kantiana della percezione come attività della coscienza si tradurrà nell'idealismo hegeliano nell'abbandono di ogni riferimento alla materialità sensibile facendo della percezione e del suo oggetto un'attività del tutto rapportabile al pensiero. L'interpretazione fenomenologica della percezione proseguirà su questa strada dell'abbandono di ogni riferimento alla materialità dei dati sensibili per cui per Franz Brentano (1838-1917) la percezione coincide con l'espressione di un giudizio o con la credenza e per Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) la percezione si differenzia dagli altri atti della coscienza perché consente di "afferrare" l'oggetto. Con Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961), la percezione va riferita interamente al corpo, dove si mescolano dati materiali e spirituali in un intreccio che supera ogni dualismo di tipo cartesiano. La philosophie de la perception est une branche de la philosophie de l'esprit et de la philosophie de la connaissance qui tente de comprendre la nature des expériences perceptives et la façon dont elles se rapportent aux croyances ou à la connaissance du monde. Deux questions retiennent alors spécialement l'attention des philosophes de l'esprit contemporains concernant la perception : celle de la nature des contenus de perception, et celle du rapport entre la perception et la connaissance. L'essentiel des débats en philosophie de l'esprit questionne l'hypothèse selon laquelle les expériences perceptives ont à la fois un contenu intentionnel – par lequel se présentent à nous des objets, des propriétés et des événements qui semblent indépendants de notre esprit – et des aspects phénoménaux ou qualitatifs correspondant à l' « effet que cela fait » d'avoir telle expérience dans telle modalité sensorielle (visuelle, auditive, etc.). A filosofia da percepção é uma área da filosofia que se dedica à natureza da experiência sensorial e perceptiva, o estatuto daquilo que é dado em tais experiências, e em particular à maneira como as crenças ou o conhecimento acerca do mundo físico podem ser baseados e justificados nessa base. Qualquer relato explícito da percepção requer um compromisso com uma variedade de visões ontológicas ou metafísicas. Sistematicamente, podem ser distinguidas duas visões: e externalismo. O internalismo assume os objectos ou as bases do conhecimento perceptivo ou crença justificada, como sendo aspectos de mente de um indivíduo, como os estados mentais, que em princípio o indivíduo pode ter acesso. Em contraste, o externalismo diz que esta base não deve abranger estados mentais ou experiência, mas é constituída por aspectos do mundo externo ao indivíduo. 지각(Philosophy of perception)은 사람이 세상에 관한 믿음과 지식으로 연관시키는 방법에 있어서 영속적인 경험의 성질과 영속적인 정보의 상태에 관한 것을 말한다. 지각 (심리학)에 대한 자세한 설명은 다양한 목적론적이거나 형이상학적인 관점 중의 하나에 집중해야 한다. The philosophy of perception is concerned with the nature of perceptual experience and the status of perceptual data, in particular how they relate to beliefs about, or knowledge of, the world. Any explicit account of perception requires a commitment to one of a variety of ontological or metaphysical views. Philosophers distinguish internalist accounts, which assume that perceptions of objects, and knowledge or beliefs about them, are aspects of an individual's mind, and externalist accounts, which state that they constitute real aspects of the world external to the individual. The position of naïve realism—the 'everyday' impression of physical objects constituting what is perceived—is to some extent contradicted by the occurrence of perceptual illusions and hallucinations and the relativity of perceptual experience as well as certain insights in science. Realist conceptions include phenomenalism and direct and indirect realism. Anti-realist conceptions include idealism and skepticism. Recent philosophical work have expanded on the philosophical features of perception by going beyond the single paradigm of vision (for instance, by investigating the uniqueness of olfaction).
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