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dbr:History_of_Turkmenistan
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土库曼斯坦历史 История Туркмении History of Turkmenistan Історія Туркменістану 투르크메니스탄의 역사 Historia de Turkmenistán Histoire du Turkménistan História do Turquemenistão تاريخ تركمانستان Història del Turkmenistan
rdfs:comment
Mentre l'antiga història del Turkmenistan es troba en gran part amortallada en el misteri, el seu passat des de l'arribada de les indoeuropees al voltant del 2000 aC és sovint el punt de partida de la història discernible de l'àrea. Les primeres tribus eren nòmades o seminòmades a causa de les condicions àrides de la regió, atès que la cultura de les estepes a Àsia Central era una extensió d'una sèrie més gran de cultures de cavalls que abraçaven l'espectre sencer de famílies lingüístiques incloent-hi els indoeuropeus i grups . Algunes de les primeres tribus iràniques conegudes incloïen el masagetes, escites/saces, i els primers sogdians (la majoria precursors probables dels khwarezmians). Turkmenistan fou un punt de pas per a nombroses migracions i invasions per part de tribus que gravi L'histoire du Turkménistan remonte à plusieurs millénaires. En effet, de récentes expéditions archéologiques ont mis au jour la présence d'un peuple vivant dans le désert du Karakoum il y a cinq mille ans. Dans cette région du Turkménistan actuel, et plus particulièrement sur le trajet de la route de la soie, les archéologues ont découvert les restes de plusieurs enceintes de villes, ainsi que des réseaux d'irrigation et des tombes. 土库曼斯坦的早期历史充满着神秘色彩。在公元前2000年左右，印欧语族古伊朗部落的到来开启了这片地区的清晰历史。 Історія Туркменістану The history of Turkmenistan traditionally began with the arrival of Indo-European Iranian tribes around 2000 BC. Early tribes were nomadic or semi-nomadic due to the arid conditions of the region that prevented widespread adoption of agriculture, and the steppe culture in Central Asia was an extension of a larger Eurasian series of horse cultures which spanned the entire spectrum of language families, including the Indo-Europeans and Turko-Mongol groups. Some of the known early Iranian tribes included the Massagatae, the Scythians/Sakas, and early Soghdians, who were most likely precursors of the Khwarezmians. Turkmenistan was a passing point for numerous migrations and invasions by tribes, which gravitated towards the settled regions of the south, including ancient Mesopotamia, Elam, and El territorio de Turkmenistán ha estado poblado desde la antigüedad. Tribus turcomanas dedicadas a la crianza de caballos llegaron al territorio en tiempos remotos, posiblemente procedentes de las Montañas Altái, y se establecieron en las afueras del desierto de Karakum, llegando hasta Persia, Siria y Anatolia. Pese a la fuerte resistencia turcomana en 1881 y, posteriormente, en 1916, Turkmenistán pasaba a estar integrado primero en Rusia y, tras la Revolución rusa, en la Unión Soviética. Исто́рия Туркме́нистàна — прошлое территории этой страны и туркменского народа. يعود تاريخ تركمانستان إلى عصور غابرة في القدم، حيث يرجع أول استيطان للإنسان فيها إلى العصر الحجري القديم، والبقايا الأثرية المكتشفة في المنطقة خير دليل على ذلك. ومنذ ذلك الوقت، مر على تركمانستان العديد من الدول والإمبراطوريات: الفارسية، المقدونية، الساسانية، الخوارزمية، الأموية، السلجوقية، المغولية، التيمورية، الروسية، والاتحاد السوفياتي. 투르크메니스탄의 역사는 전통적으로 기원전 2000년경 인도유럽계 이란족이 도래하면서 시작되었다. 초기 부족들은 농업의 광범위한 채택을 막은 건조한 조건 때문에 유목민 또는 반유목민이었고, 중앙아시아의 스텝 문화는 인도유럽어족과 튀르크몽골어족을 포함한 모든 어족에 걸친 유라시아의 더 큰 일련의 말 문화의 연장선이었다. 초기 이란족들 중에는 마사게타이족, 스키티아/사카, 초기 소그디아나 등이 있었으며 이들은 화레즘의 전조로 보인다. 투르크메니스탄은 고대 메소포타미아, 엘람, 인더스 문명을 포함한 남쪽의 정착된 지역으로 몰려드는 부족들의 수많은 이주와 침략의 통과지였다.
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El territorio de Turkmenistán ha estado poblado desde la antigüedad. Tribus turcomanas dedicadas a la crianza de caballos llegaron al territorio en tiempos remotos, posiblemente procedentes de las Montañas Altái, y se establecieron en las afueras del desierto de Karakum, llegando hasta Persia, Siria y Anatolia. Alejandro Magno conquistó el territorio en el siglo IV a. C. de camino hacia la India. Ciento cincuenta años después, el Reino de Partia se hizo con el control de Turkmenistán, estableciendo su capital en Nisa, un área localizada en las afueras de la actual capital Asjabad. En el siglo VII, los ejércitos árabes conquistan la región (véase: Conquista musulmana de Transoxiana), extendiendo el islam, e incorporando a los turcomanos a la cultura de Oriente Medio. Durante esta época, la famosa "Ruta de la Seda", ruta comercial que conectaba Asia y Europa, alcanza su esplendor. A mediados del siglo XI, los poderosos turcos selyúcidas concentraron sus fuerzas en el territorio turcomano en un intento de expansión hacia Afganistán. Tras su desintegración en la segunda mitad del siglo XII, Turkmenistán pierde su independencia una vez más y pasa a ser parte del Imperio mongol de Gengis Kan. En las siguientes 7 centurias, los turcomanos vivieron bajo diferentes imperios y en constantes luchas tribales. A partir del siglo XVI, grupos de jinetes turcomanos se dedicaron al asalto de caravanas, saqueando y vendiendo a los prisioneros como esclavos. Tras diversos enfrentamientos con el cada vez más poderoso Imperio ruso, los turcomanos ven como poco a poco sus tierras caen en el control político de Rusia: El ejército ruso hizo su entrada en el territorio entre las décadas de 1860 y 1870. En 1869, se crea el puerto de Krasnovodsk, actual Turkmenbashi, y ya en 1874 se había consolidado la presencia rusa con la creación del distrito militar del Transcaspio. Hacia 1894, el control ruso sobre Turkmenistán era completo. Pese a la fuerte resistencia turcomana en 1881 y, posteriormente, en 1916, Turkmenistán pasaba a estar integrado primero en Rusia y, tras la Revolución rusa, en la Unión Soviética. Mentre l'antiga història del Turkmenistan es troba en gran part amortallada en el misteri, el seu passat des de l'arribada de les indoeuropees al voltant del 2000 aC és sovint el punt de partida de la història discernible de l'àrea. Les primeres tribus eren nòmades o seminòmades a causa de les condicions àrides de la regió, atès que la cultura de les estepes a Àsia Central era una extensió d'una sèrie més gran de cultures de cavalls que abraçaven l'espectre sencer de famílies lingüístiques incloent-hi els indoeuropeus i grups . Algunes de les primeres tribus iràniques conegudes incloïen el masagetes, escites/saces, i els primers sogdians (la majoria precursors probables dels khwarezmians). Turkmenistan fou un punt de pas per a nombroses migracions i invasions per part de tribus que gravitaren cap a les regions poblades del sud incloent-hi l'antiga Mesopotàmia, Elam, i la Civilització de la vall de l'Indus. La història escrita de la regió comença amb la conquesta de la regió per part de la Dinastia Aquemènida de l'antic Iran, moment en el qual la regió fou dividida entre els sàtrapes de Margiana, Coràsmia i Pàrtia. Entre els conqueridors posteriors s'hi compten Alexandre el Gran, els parts, heftalites, huns, göktürks, sàrmates, i perses sassànides. Durant aquesta primera fase de la història, la majoria dels habitants del Turkmenistan eren o bé partidaris del zoroastrisme o bé del budisme i la regió era en gran part dominada per poblacions iranianes. Tanmateix, aquests incursions i les èpoques, per bé que fonamentals, no formaren la història de la regió com sí que ho feren les invasions de dos dels posteriors grups invasors: àrabs musulmans i turcs oghuz. La gran majoria dels habitants es convertiren a la variant sunnita de l'islam, mentre que els oghuz portaren amb ells la llengua turcman, del subgrup de les llengües turqueses, que acabà sent predominant a la regió. El període turquès fou una època de fusió cultural en el qual les tradicions islàmiques portades pels àrabs es fusionaren amb les cultures iranianes locals; això posteriorment fou alterat pels invasors turquesos i per diversos governants, com ara els seljúcides. Genguis Khan i les invasions mongoles devastaren la regió a les darreries de l'edat mitjana, però el seu domini a la zona fou un període de transició perquè posteriorment Tamerlà i els uzbeks pugnaren pel territori. El Turkmenistan modern fou radicalment transformat per la invasió de l'Imperi Rus, que conquerí la regió a finals del segle xix. Posteriorment, la Revolució Russa transformaria en el fons el Turkmenistan, des d'una societat tribal islàmica fins a una de totalitària leninista durant l'era soviètica. La independència arribà el 1991, quan Saparmurat Niàzov, un antic cap del partit comunista local, es declarà governant absolut per a tota la vida com a Turkmenbaixi o Líder del turcmans i marcà la transició cap a un nou estat independent i autoritari sota el seu control absolut, que fins ara s'ha resistit a qualsevol intent de democratització, i que ha influït en moltes de les altres antigues repúbliques soviètiques. Niàzov governà fins a la seva mort el 21 de desembre del 2006. L'histoire du Turkménistan remonte à plusieurs millénaires. En effet, de récentes expéditions archéologiques ont mis au jour la présence d'un peuple vivant dans le désert du Karakoum il y a cinq mille ans. Dans cette région du Turkménistan actuel, et plus particulièrement sur le trajet de la route de la soie, les archéologues ont découvert les restes de plusieurs enceintes de villes, ainsi que des réseaux d'irrigation et des tombes. 土库曼斯坦的早期历史充满着神秘色彩。在公元前2000年左右，印欧语族古伊朗部落的到来开启了这片地区的清晰历史。 투르크메니스탄의 역사는 전통적으로 기원전 2000년경 인도유럽계 이란족이 도래하면서 시작되었다. 초기 부족들은 농업의 광범위한 채택을 막은 건조한 조건 때문에 유목민 또는 반유목민이었고, 중앙아시아의 스텝 문화는 인도유럽어족과 튀르크몽골어족을 포함한 모든 어족에 걸친 유라시아의 더 큰 일련의 말 문화의 연장선이었다. 초기 이란족들 중에는 마사게타이족, 스키티아/사카, 초기 소그디아나 등이 있었으며 이들은 화레즘의 전조로 보인다. 투르크메니스탄은 고대 메소포타미아, 엘람, 인더스 문명을 포함한 남쪽의 정착된 지역으로 몰려드는 부족들의 수많은 이주와 침략의 통과지였다. 현대 투르크메니스탄은 19세기 말 러시아 제국의 침공으로 크게 변화했다. 이후 1917년의 러시아 혁명은 궁극적으로 투르크메니스탄을 이슬람과 유목 부족 사회에서 소련 시대 동안 산업화되고 도시주의적인 레닌주의 사회주의 국가로 변화시켰다. 1991년 독립은 전 소련 공산당(CPSU) 지방 지부 소속이었던 사파르무라트 니야조프가 자신을 종신 대통령으로 선언하면서 이루어졌고, 투르크멘의 지도자라고도 알려진 투르크멘바시라는 칭호를 얻었고, 새롭게 독립한 투르크메니스탄을 그의 절대 통치하에 있는 전체주의 보수 독재 국가로 변화시켰다. 투르크메니스탄은 지금까지 다른 대부분의 옛 소련 공화국들과는 달리 민주화를 이루지 못했고, 니야조프는 2006년 12월 21일 사망할 때까지 이 나라를 통치했다. 그는 의미 있는 정치적 경쟁과 반대가 없는 선거에서 구르반굴리 베르디무하메도프에 의해 계승되었고, 베르디무하메도프는 니야조프의 퍼진 인격 숭배와 그 나라의 거의 완전한 국제 및 사회 경제적 고립을 포함하여 별난 것으로 여겨졌던 니야조프에 의한 많은 정책들을 뒤집었고, 몇 가지 경제 개혁을 통과시켰다. 그리고 비록 입법 기관에 대표되는 각 정당이 정권의 직접적인 감독 하에 있었지만, 다당제를 향한 제한적인 움직임을 보이고 있고, 정부에 대한 공개적인 반대는 여전히 광범위한 억압에 직면했다. 구르반굴리 베르디무하메도프는 이후 아들 세르다르 베르디무하메도프가 2022년 3월 정치직에서 물러난 뒤 사실상 정치적 왕조를 세웠다. Історія Туркменістану يعود تاريخ تركمانستان إلى عصور غابرة في القدم، حيث يرجع أول استيطان للإنسان فيها إلى العصر الحجري القديم، والبقايا الأثرية المكتشفة في المنطقة خير دليل على ذلك. ومنذ ذلك الوقت، مر على تركمانستان العديد من الدول والإمبراطوريات: الفارسية، المقدونية، الساسانية، الخوارزمية، الأموية، السلجوقية، المغولية، التيمورية، الروسية، والاتحاد السوفياتي. The history of Turkmenistan traditionally began with the arrival of Indo-European Iranian tribes around 2000 BC. Early tribes were nomadic or semi-nomadic due to the arid conditions of the region that prevented widespread adoption of agriculture, and the steppe culture in Central Asia was an extension of a larger Eurasian series of horse cultures which spanned the entire spectrum of language families, including the Indo-Europeans and Turko-Mongol groups. Some of the known early Iranian tribes included the Massagatae, the Scythians/Sakas, and early Soghdians, who were most likely precursors of the Khwarezmians. Turkmenistan was a passing point for numerous migrations and invasions by tribes, which gravitated towards the settled regions of the south, including ancient Mesopotamia, Elam, and the Indus Valley civilization. The region's written history begins with the region's conquest by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran, as the region was divided between the satraps of Margiana, Chorasmia and Parthia. Later conquerors included Alexander the Great, the Parni, Ephthalites, Iranian Huns, Göktürks, Sarmatians, and Sassanid Iranians. During this early phase of history, the majority of Turkmenistan's inhabitants were adherents of Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, and the region was largely dominated by Iranian peoples. These incursions and epochs, though pivotal, did not shape the region's history as the invasions of two later invading groups: Arabs and the Oghuz Turks. The vast majority of inhabitants were converted to Hanifism, while the Oghuz brought the beginnings of the Turkic Turkmen language that came to dominate the area. The Turkic period was a time of cultural fusion and growth, as Islamic traditions brought by the Arabs merged with local Iranian cultures, and the city of Merv became a centre of commerce, science, and innovation, being an influential capital of several Islamic caliphates. The cultural landscape of Turkmenistan was further altered by Turkic invaders and rulers such as the Seljuks. Genghis Khan and Mongol invasions devastated the region during the late Middle Ages, but their hold upon the area was transitional as Timur Leng and Uzbeks later contested the land. Modern Turkmenistan was radically transformed by the invasion of the Russian Empire, which conquered and annexed the region in the late 19th century. Later, the Russian Revolution of 1917 would ultimately transform Turkmenistan from an Islamic and nomadic tribal society to a industrialized and urbanist Leninist socialist republic during the Soviet era. Independence came in 1991, as Saparmurat Niyazov, a former member of the local branch of the CPSU, declared himself the absolute President for life, taking up the title Turkmenbashi, also known as the Leader of the Turkmen, and transformed the newly independent Turkmenistan into an totalitarian conservative dictatorship under his absolute rule. Turkmenistan has thus far been unable to significantly democratize itself, unlike most of the other former Soviet Republics, and Niyazov ruled the country until his death on December 21, 2006. He was succeeded by Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow in an election devoid of meaningful political competition and opposition, and Berdymuhamedow reversed many policies by Niyazov that were considered eccentric, including Niyazov's pervasive cult of personality and the country's near total international and socioeconomic isolation, passing several economic reforms and making limited moves towards a multi-party system, although each party represented in the legislative body was under the regime's direct oversight, and open dissent against the government still faced widespread repression. Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was later succeeded by his son Serdar Berdimuhamedow after he stepped down from political office in March 2022, establishing a de-facto political dynasty. Исто́рия Туркме́нистàна — прошлое территории этой страны и туркменского народа.
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