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| - The second economy in the Soviet Union was black market or the informal sector in the economy of the Soviet Union. The term was suggested by Gregory Grossman in his seminal article, "The Second Economy of the USSR" (1977). Economist Gerard Roland noted that as Grossman anticipated, "the logic of the second economy tended over time to undermine the logic of the command system and to lead to expanding black markets". This prediction was corroborated by the long-term analysis of the economies of Russia and Ukraine (1965–1989) by Treml and Alexeev. To a varying degree, the second economy influenced all Eastern Bloc economies. (en)
- La seconda economia rappresentava il settore informale dell'economia sovietica. Il termine fu ideato da Gregory Grossman nel suo articolo The Second Economy of the USSR (1977). L'economista Gérard Roland notò che, come anticipato da Grossman, "la logica della seconda economia nel corso del tempo minò la logica del sistema di comando e guidò l'espansione dei mercati neri." Questa predizione fu corroborata dall'analisi a lungo termine delle economie della RSFS Russa e della RSS Ucraina (1965–1989) da Vladimir Treml e Michail Alekseev. In modi diversi, la seconda economia influenzò tutte le economie del blocco orientale. (it)
- Теневая («вторая») экономика в СССР — различные виды незаконной экономической деятельности, существовавшие в СССР. Оценки масштабов теневой экономики в СССР сильно разнятся. Так, американский исследователь Григорий Гроссман отмечал, что в середине 1970-х годов 28-33 % расходов домохозяйств в СССР финансировались за счет доходов из частных, не связанных с работой на государство, источников. Владимир Тремл из американского Университета Дьюка полагает, что в нелегальную трудовую деятельность в СССР было вовлечено 10-12 % советской рабочей силы. По оценкам Леонида Косалса из Высшей школы экономики, в теневой экономике СССР было занято чуть более 1 % населения. По оценкам, в конце 1970-х годов от 33 до 65 % покупок бензина владельцами автомобилей в городах приходилось на похищенный бензин, неза (ru)
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| - The second economy in the Soviet Union was black market or the informal sector in the economy of the Soviet Union. The term was suggested by Gregory Grossman in his seminal article, "The Second Economy of the USSR" (1977). Economist Gerard Roland noted that as Grossman anticipated, "the logic of the second economy tended over time to undermine the logic of the command system and to lead to expanding black markets". This prediction was corroborated by the long-term analysis of the economies of Russia and Ukraine (1965–1989) by Treml and Alexeev. To a varying degree, the second economy influenced all Eastern Bloc economies. Grossman defines the concept of second economy with a two-prong test, which is the set of economic activities which satisfy at least one of the two conditions: "(a) being directly for private gain (b) being in some significant respect in knowing contravention of existing law." Studies of second, shadow, gray and so on economies are difficult because unlike official economies there are no direct statistics, therefore indirect methods are required. Treml and Alexeev studied the relationships between per capita legal money income and such income-dependent variables as per capita savings and purchases of various goods and services. The study indicated that the disparity between legal income and legal spending gradually grew during 1965–1989 and by the end of the period the correlation between the two almost disappeared, indicating the rapid growth of the second economy. The proliferation of the second economy was impossible without widespread corruption. A significant impact on the economy of the Soviet Union was the system of blat, a network of favors, which allowed people to procure all kinds of goods and services, operating within both official and second Soviet economies and continued to operate in post-Soviet Russia. Since the early days of the Soviet Union, some authors claim that there has been a tradition to exaggerate the blame of the "black market" for consumer goods shortages, thus effectively shifting the blame off state bureaucrats with their inadequate planning. During the era of perestroika, the 500 Days program of economic transition mentioned the shadow economy would be an important factor in reforms and predicted that at least 90% of it was to be absorbed by the opening free market. (en)
- La seconda economia rappresentava il settore informale dell'economia sovietica. Il termine fu ideato da Gregory Grossman nel suo articolo The Second Economy of the USSR (1977). L'economista Gérard Roland notò che, come anticipato da Grossman, "la logica della seconda economia nel corso del tempo minò la logica del sistema di comando e guidò l'espansione dei mercati neri." Questa predizione fu corroborata dall'analisi a lungo termine delle economie della RSFS Russa e della RSS Ucraina (1965–1989) da Vladimir Treml e Michail Alekseev. In modi diversi, la seconda economia influenzò tutte le economie del blocco orientale. Grossman definisce il concetto di seconda economia con un test che rappresenta l'impostazione delle attività economiche che soddisfano almeno una di due condizioni: "(A) essere a favore del guadagno privato (B) avere un certo rispetto conoscendo le contravvenzioni della legge vigente." Gli studi sui vari strati dell'economia sovietica o di altri Paesi sono difficili a causa della mancanza di statistiche dirette e del solo uso di metodi d'indagine indiretti. Treml e Alekseev studiarono le relazioni tra il reddito monetario pro capite legale e variabili dipendenti dal reddito, come i risparmi pro-capite e gli acquisti di vari beni e servizi. Lo studio indicò che la disparità tra il reddito legale e la spesa legale era cresciuto gradualmente nel periodo 1965-1989 e verso la fine di quel periodo la correlazione tra i due era quasi sparita, indicando una rapida crescita della seconda economia. La proliferazione della seconda economia sarebbe stata impossibile senza una corruzione diffusa. Un impatto significativo sull'economia dell'Unione Sovietica lo ebbe il sistema dei blat, una rete di favori che permise alle persone di procurarsi ogni genere di beni e servizi, operando all'interno delle economie legali e illegali, e che continuò nella Russia post-sovietica. Sin dai primi giorni dell'Unione Sovietica, è sempre stata esagerata la colpa data ai mercati neri per aver provocato le penurie di beni di consumo, spostando l'attenzione dai burocrati statali con la loro pianificazione inadeguata. Durante la perestrojka, l'economia informale venne menzionata nel (in russo: программа "500 дней"?) di transizione economica come un fattore importante nelle riforme, prevedendo un assorbimento di almeno il 90% da parte del mercato libero. (it)
- Теневая («вторая») экономика в СССР — различные виды незаконной экономической деятельности, существовавшие в СССР. Оценки масштабов теневой экономики в СССР сильно разнятся. Так, американский исследователь Григорий Гроссман отмечал, что в середине 1970-х годов 28-33 % расходов домохозяйств в СССР финансировались за счет доходов из частных, не связанных с работой на государство, источников. Владимир Тремл из американского Университета Дьюка полагает, что в нелегальную трудовую деятельность в СССР было вовлечено 10-12 % советской рабочей силы. По оценкам Леонида Косалса из Высшей школы экономики, в теневой экономике СССР было занято чуть более 1 % населения. По оценкам, в конце 1970-х годов от 33 до 65 % покупок бензина владельцами автомобилей в городах приходилось на похищенный бензин, незаконно продаваемый водителями государственных предприятий и организаций. Незаконное производство спиртных напитков, а также спекулятивная перепродажа спиртных напитков, произведенных официально, обеспечивали в конце 1970-х годов доходы, равные 2,2 % ВНП. При этом если в РСФСР доля доходов от «второй» экономики составляла средние по СССР величины, то в Белоруссии, Молдавии и на Украине, а особенно в Закавказье и в Средней Азии эта доля была значительно выше. (ru)
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