The heaviest atomic nuclei are created in nuclear reactions that combine two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to f
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| - Introduction to the heaviest elements (en)
- 最重元素概论 (zh)
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| - The heaviest atomic nuclei are created in nuclear reactions that combine two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to f (en)
- 超重元素的原子核是在两个不同大小的原子核的聚变中产生的。粗略地说，两个原子核的质量之差越大，两者发生反应的可能性就越大。由较重原子核组成的物质会作為靶子，被较轻原子核的粒子束轰击。两个原子核只能在距离足够近的时候，才能聚变成一个原子核。原子核（全部都有正电荷）会因为静电排斥而相互排斥，所以只有两个原子核的距离足够短时，强核力才能克服这个排斥力并发生聚变。粒子束因此被粒子加速器大大加速，以使这种排斥力与粒子束的速度相比变得微不足道。不过，只是靠得足够近不足以使两个原子核聚变：当两个原子核逼近彼此时，它们通常会在一起约10−20秒后裂变（产物不需要和反应物相同），而非形成单独的原子核。如果聚变发生了，两个原子核产生的一个原子核会处于激发态，被称为，非常不稳定。为了达到更稳定的状态，这个暂时存在的原子核可能会直接核裂变，或是放出一些带走激发能量的中子。如果这些激发能量不足以使中子被放出，复合原子核就会放出γ射线。这个过程会在原子核碰撞后的10−16秒发生，并创造出更稳定的原子核。（JWP）定义，化学元素的原子核只有10−14秒内不进行放射性衰变，才能被识别出来，这个值大约是原子核得到它的外层电子，显示其化学性质所需的时间。 (zh)
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| - Visualization of unsuccessful nuclear fusion, based on calculations by the Australian National University (en)
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| - The heaviest atomic nuclei are created in nuclear reactions that combine two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10−20 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus. If fusion does occur, the temporary merger—termed a compound nucleus—is an excited state. To lose its excitation energy and reach a more stable state, a compound nucleus either fissions or ejects one or several neutrons, which carry away the energy. This occurs in approximately 10−16 seconds after the initial collision. The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam. In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products) and transferred to a surface-barrier detector, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival. The transfer takes about 10−6 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long. The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the energy, and the time of the decay are measured. Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, their influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, as it has unlimited range. Nuclei of the heaviest elements are thus theoretically predicted and have so far been observed to primarily decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission; these modes are predominant for nuclei of superheavy elements. Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be determined arithmetically. Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters. The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize one of the heaviest elements is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made. (en)
- 超重元素的原子核是在两个不同大小的原子核的聚变中产生的。粗略地说，两个原子核的质量之差越大，两者发生反应的可能性就越大。由较重原子核组成的物质会作為靶子，被较轻原子核的粒子束轰击。两个原子核只能在距离足够近的时候，才能聚变成一个原子核。原子核（全部都有正电荷）会因为静电排斥而相互排斥，所以只有两个原子核的距离足够短时，强核力才能克服这个排斥力并发生聚变。粒子束因此被粒子加速器大大加速，以使这种排斥力与粒子束的速度相比变得微不足道。不过，只是靠得足够近不足以使两个原子核聚变：当两个原子核逼近彼此时，它们通常会在一起约10−20秒后裂变（产物不需要和反应物相同），而非形成单独的原子核。如果聚变发生了，两个原子核产生的一个原子核会处于激发态，被称为，非常不稳定。为了达到更稳定的状态，这个暂时存在的原子核可能会直接核裂变，或是放出一些带走激发能量的中子。如果这些激发能量不足以使中子被放出，复合原子核就会放出γ射线。这个过程会在原子核碰撞后的10−16秒发生，并创造出更稳定的原子核。（JWP）定义，化学元素的原子核只有10−14秒内不进行放射性衰变，才能被识别出来，这个值大约是原子核得到它的外层电子，显示其化学性质所需的时间。 粒子束穿过目标后，会到达下一个腔室——分离室。如果反应产生了新的原子核，它就会被这个粒子束携带。在分离室中，新产生的原子核会从其它核素（原本的粒子束和其它反应产物）中分离，并转移到中，在这里停止原子核。这时标记撞击探测器的确切位置、能量和到达时间。这个转移需要10−6秒的时间，意即这个原子核需要存活这么长的时间才能被检测到。衰变被记录后，这个原子核被再次记录，并测量位置、衰变能量和衰变时间。 原子核的稳定性源自于强核力，但强核力的作用距离很短，随着原子核越来越大，强核力对最外层的核子（质子和中子）的影响减弱。同时，原子核会被质子之间，范围不受限制的静电排斥力撕裂。超重元素的主要衰变方式——α衰变和自发裂变都是这种排斥引起的。α衰变由发射出去的α粒子记录，在实际衰变之前很容易确定衰变产物。如果这样的衰变或一系列连续衰变产生了一个已知的原子核，则可以很容易地确定反应的原始产物。（衰变链中的所有衰变都必须在同一个地方发生。） 已知的原子核可以通过它经历的衰变的特定特征来识别，例如衰变能量（或更具体地说，发射粒子的动能）。然而，自发裂变会产生各种分裂产物，因此无法从其分裂产物确定原始核素。 嘗試合成超重元素的物理学家可以获得的信息是探测器收集到的信息：粒子到达探测器的位置、能量和时间，以及粒子衰变的信息。物理学家分析这些数据并试图得出结论，確認它确实是由新元素引起的，而非由不同的核素引起的。如果提供的数据不足以得出创造出来的核素确实是新元素的结论，并且对观察到的影响没有其他解释，就可能在解释数据时出现错误。 (zh)
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