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Societat de la dinastia Han Sociedad en la dinastía Han Masyarakat dan kebudayaan Dinasti Han Society and culture of the Han dynasty Société et culture sous la dynastie Han
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Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) adalah dinasti kekaisaran kedua di Tiongkok. Pada masa ini, Tiongkok berhasil mencapai kemajuan ekonomi, teknologi, budaya, dan sosial. Masyarakatnya diperintah oleh kaisar yang berbagi kekuasaan dengan para pejabat/ahli dan bangsawan-bangsawan semi-feudal. Hukum, adat, sastra, dan pendidikan Dinasti Han dipandu oleh sistem filsafat dan etika Kong Hu Cu, walaupun pengaruh legalisme dan Taoisme masih dapat dirasakan. Anggota golongan elit terpelajar yang berangan-angan menjadi pejabat harus mendapatkan pendidikan Kong Hu Cu terlebih dahulu. The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of Imperial China divided into the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) periods, when the capital cities were located at Chang'an and Luoyang, respectively. It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor. La sociedad en la dinastía Han consistió en un etapa de la antigua China comprendida entre los años 200 a. C.-220 d. C., dividida en los periodos Han occidental (206 a. C.-9 d. C.) y Han oriental (25-220), cuando las ciudades capitales estaban ubicadas en Chang'an y Luoyang, respectivamente. Fue fundado por el emperador Liu Bang e interrumpido brevemente por el régimen de Wang Mang (9-23) que usurpó el trono de un niño emperador Han.Ya que luego fue asesinado por su enemigo. La dynastie Han est une période de l'histoire de la Chine qui débute en 206 av. J.-C, lorsque Han Gaozu fonde la dynastie en montant sur le trône, et s’achève en 220 ap. J.-C, à la fin du règne de Han Xiandi. Elle est elle-même divisée en deux périodes : celle des Han occidentaux (西漢) ou Han antérieurs (前漢) (206 av. J.-C. - 9 ap.J.-C), capitale Chang'an, et celle des Han orientaux (東漢) ou Han postérieurs (後漢), (25 - 220), capitale Luoyang. Ces deux périodes sont séparées par la courte dynastie Xin fondée par Wang Mang et qui disparaît après la mort de son fondateur. La societat a la dinastia Han comprenia el conjunt de classes socials d'un sistema fortament estratificat sota el domini de l'emperador pertanyent a la dinastia Han unides per pràctiques i costums compartits. Les famílies tendien al model nuclear, amb pares i fills convivint a una mateixa llar, malgrat que es reverenciaven avantpassats comuns amb altres parents més allunyats. Es considera un període d'esplendor dins la història de la Xina que abasta els segles II aC - II i que va suposar una homogeneïtzació de la cultura i un control administratius amb una burocràcia de creixent poder.
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n11:Laborer,_China,_unearthed_at_Xinjin_County,_Sichuan,_Eastern_Han_dynasty,_25-220_AD,_ceramic_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu,_China_-_DSC04757.jpg?width=300
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A storyteller, unearthed from a tomb of Songjialin, Pi County, Sichuan A laborer, unearthed from a tomb of Xinjin County, Sichuan A seated woman with a bronze mirror, unearthed from a tomb of Songjialin, Pi County, Sichuan A dancer and musician, detail from a banquet scene A woman with a broom and dustpan, unearthed from a tomb of Cuiping Mountain, Yibin, Sichuan Women dressed in Hanfu and displaying their domestic wares A woman with an Eastern Han hairstyle Children dressed in Hanfu and displaying their domestic wares Women dressed in Hanfu silk robes Cavalry and chariots
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Han-dynasty ceramic pottery heads, broken off from their original bodies that once formed statuettes Left: a Western-Han ceramic model of a horse and rider; right: fresco of a horseman in red hunting dress from a Western-Han-dynasty tomb in Xi'an , Shaanxi province; although registered merchants were legally barred from riding on horseback, Han writers note that such laws were largely ignored. Left: a Han ceramic figurine of a lady servant with hands placed in front and covered in long silk sleeves Right: a Western Han fresco of a woman in Hanfu robes, from a tomb of Xi'an , Shaanxi province A Western Han fresco depicting Confucius , from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China Carved reliefs on stone tomb doors showing men dressed in Hanfu, with one holding a shield, the other a broom, Eastern Han Dynasty , from Lanjia Yard, Pi County, Sichuan province, Sichuan Provincial Museum of Chengdu
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Murals of the Dahuting Tomb of the late Eastern Han dynasty , located in Zhengzhou, Henan province, China, showing scenes of daily life. Chinese ceramic figurines of the Eastern Han period, exhibits from the Sichuan Provincial Museum, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Han Dynasty ceramic lady.jpg Holding Shield and Holding Broom tomb doors, 2 of 2, China, unearthed from Lanjia Yard, Pixian County, Sichuan, Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 AD, stone - Sichuan Provincial Museum - Chengdu, China - DSC04747.jpg Western Han Dynasty Woman, Han Tomb in Sian, Shensi.jpg Han Dynasty pottery heads 2.JPG Holding Shield and Holding Broom tomb doors, 1 of 2, China, unearthed from Lanjia Yard, Pixian County, Sichuan, Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 AD, stone - Sichuan Provincial Museum - Chengdu, China - DSC04745.jpg Dahuting tomb mural detail of a woman, Eastern Han.jpg Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg Dahuting Tomb mural of two women dressed in Hanfu, displaying domestic wares, Eastern Han Dynasty .jpg Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg Storyteller,_China,_unearthed_at_Songjialin,_Pixian,_Sichuan,_Eastern_Han_dynasty,_25-220_AD,_ceramic_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu,_China_-_DSC04763.jpg Dahuting mural detail of a dancer, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg Fresco of a Horseman from a Han Dynasty Tomb in Sian, Shensi.jpg Woman with broom and dustpan, China, unearthed at Cuiping Mountain, Yibin City, Sichuan, Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 AD, ceramic - Sichuan Provincial Museum - Chengdu, China - DSC04760.jpg Laborer,_China,_unearthed_at_Xinjin_County,_Sichuan,_Eastern_Han_dynasty,_25-220_AD,_ceramic_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu,_China_-_DSC04757.jpg Han Dynasty pottery heads 3.JPG Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg Dahuting Tomb mural, cavalry and chariots, Eastern Han.jpg Cernuschi Museum 20060812 068.jpg Woman_with_a_mirror,_China,_unearthed_at_Songjialin,_Pixian,_Sichuan,_Eastern_Han_dynasty,_25-220_AD,_ceramic_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu,_China_-_DSC04768.jpg
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La sociedad en la dinastía Han consistió en un etapa de la antigua China comprendida entre los años 200 a. C.-220 d. C., dividida en los periodos Han occidental (206 a. C.-9 d. C.) y Han oriental (25-220), cuando las ciudades capitales estaban ubicadas en Chang'an y Luoyang, respectivamente. Fue fundado por el emperador Liu Bang e interrumpido brevemente por el régimen de Wang Mang (9-23) que usurpó el trono de un niño emperador Han.Ya que luego fue asesinado por su enemigo. La dinastía Han fue una era de gran progreso económico, tecnológico, cultural y social en China. Su sociedad estaba gobernada por un emperador que compartía el poder con una burocracia oficial y una nobleza semifeudal. Sus leyes, costumbres, literatura y educación se guiaron en gran medida por la filosofía y el sistema ético del confucianismo, aunque todavía se podía ver la influencia del legalismo y el taoísmo, de la dinastía Zhou anterior. Miembros de la clase erudita de la nobleza quienes aspiraban a ocupar cargos públicos fueron obligados a recibir una educación basada en Confucio. Se creó una nueva ideología sintética del confucianismo Han cuando el erudito Dong Zhongshu (179-104 a. C.) unió el canon confuciano presuntamente editado por Kongzi, o Confucio (551-479 a. C.), con ciclos cosmológicos de yin y yang y los cinco elementos chinos. Aunque el estatus social de nobles, funcionarios, agricultores y artesanos se consideraba superior a la del comerciante humildemente registrado, los hombres de negocios ricos y exitosos adquirieron enormes fortunas que les permitieron rivalizar con el prestigio social de los nobles más poderosos y los más altos funcionarios. Los esclavos estaban en el fondo del orden social, pero representaban una pequeña porción de la población general. Los encargados contratados directamente por los propietarios, se unieron a las fincas de los terratenientes ricos, mientras que los médicos y los ocultistas religiosos empleados por el estado podían ganarse la vida decentemente. Las personas de todas las clases sociales creían en varias deidades, espíritus, inmortales y demonios. Mientras que los hadaistas Han se organizaron en pequeños grupos principalmente preocupados por alcanzar la inmortalidad a través de varios medios, a mediados del siglo II formaron sociedades religiosas jerárquicas que desafiaron la autoridad imperial y vieron a Laozi (siglo VI a. C.) como un santo profeta. El típico hogar chino de la era Han contenía una familia nuclear con un promedio de cuatro a cinco miembros, a diferencia de las dinastías posteriores, cuando las generaciones múltiples y los miembros de la familia extendida comúnmente vivían en el mismo hogar. Las familias eran patrilineales, lo que convertía al padre en el jefe supremo de la casa. Los matrimonios concertados eran la norma, mientras que se esperaba que una nueva esposa se uniera al clan de su esposo. Tener hijos sobre hijas fue considerado extremadamente importante por el bien de llevar adelante el culto a los ancestros. Aunque las costumbres y la tradición confuciana esperaban que las niñas y las mujeres se comportaran pasivamente con sus parientes masculinos, a las madres se les dio un estado familiar superior al de sus hijos. Las mujeres también se dedicaban a diversas profesiones dentro y fuera del hogar y recibían protección bajo la ley. La emperatriz era superior en estatus a los parientes masculinos del clan de su consorte, mientras que la madre del emperador -la emperatriz viuda- tenía la autoridad de anular sus decisiones y elegir a su sucesor, si no se le había nombrado antes de su muerte. La societat a la dinastia Han comprenia el conjunt de classes socials d'un sistema fortament estratificat sota el domini de l'emperador pertanyent a la dinastia Han unides per pràctiques i costums compartits. Les famílies tendien al model nuclear, amb pares i fills convivint a una mateixa llar, malgrat que es reverenciaven avantpassats comuns amb altres parents més allunyats. Es considera un període d'esplendor dins la història de la Xina que abasta els segles II aC - II i que va suposar una homogeneïtzació de la cultura i un control administratius amb una burocràcia de creixent poder. La dynastie Han est une période de l'histoire de la Chine qui débute en 206 av. J.-C, lorsque Han Gaozu fonde la dynastie en montant sur le trône, et s’achève en 220 ap. J.-C, à la fin du règne de Han Xiandi. Elle est elle-même divisée en deux périodes : celle des Han occidentaux (西漢) ou Han antérieurs (前漢) (206 av. J.-C. - 9 ap.J.-C), capitale Chang'an, et celle des Han orientaux (東漢) ou Han postérieurs (後漢), (25 - 220), capitale Luoyang. Ces deux périodes sont séparées par la courte dynastie Xin fondée par Wang Mang et qui disparaît après la mort de son fondateur. Les quatre siècles que dure la dynastie Han sont une période de grands progrès économiques, technologiques, culturels et sociaux pour la Chine. Le pays est dirigé par un empereur, qui partage son pouvoir avec un appareil bureaucratique et des nobles dans une situation de semi-féodalité. Les lois, les coutumes, la littérature et l'éducation sont largement inspirés par la philosophie et l'éthique du Confucianisme ; même si l'influence du Légisme et du Taoïsme, présents depuis l'époque de la dynastie Zhou, se font toujours sentir. Ainsi, les lettrés et les nobles qui désirent se mettre au service de l'état, ne peuvent prétendre à un poste officiel que s'ils ont reçu une éducation basée sur les principes de la philosophie de Confucius. C'est sous les Han occidentaux que le lettré Dong Zhongshu (179–104 av. J.-C.) crée une véritable idéologie synthétique du Confucianisme Han, en unifiant le canon officiel du Confucianisme, avec les cycles cosmologiques du Yin et Yang et les cinq éléments du Wuxing La société est hiérarchisée, et le statut social des nobles, fonctionnaires, agriculteurs et artisans est supérieur à celui des humbles marchands. Cependant, malgré ce carcan social, de véritables hommes d'affaires riches et prospères réussissent à amasser des fortunes considérables, qui leur permet de rivaliser en termes de prestige avec les nobles les plus puissants et les officiels de haut rang. Les esclaves sont en bas de l'échelle sociale, mais ne représentent qu'une infime portion de la population totale. Les « invités permanents » existent en plus grand nombre et sont considérés comme faisant partie des « biens » liés à telle ou telle exploitation d'un grand propriétaire terrien. Enfin, les médecins et les occultistes/religieux employés par l'état réussissent à vivre dans la dignité, sans avoir un train de vie démesuré. Quelle que soit leur classe sociale, la plupart des gens vénèrent les dieux d'un panthéon riche et varié, qui donnera naissance avec le temps à la religion traditionnelle chinoise. Dans les premiers temps de la dynastie Han, les taoïstes s'organisent en petits groupes et se concentrent sur la recherche de l'immortalité. Ce n'est que dans la seconde moitié du IIe siècle qu'ils se structurent en une vaste société hiérarchisée, qui voit en Lao Tseu un prophète et concurrence l'autorité impériale. Le foyer-type de la période Han est une maison dans laquelle habite une famille nucléaire de quatre à cinq personnes. Ce n'est que quelques siècles plus tard, sous les dynasties suivantes, que la situation change et on se retrouve avec un foyer qui regroupe plusieurs générations sous le même toit, ainsi que les membres de la famille étendue. Ce sont des familles patrilinéaires, qui sont sous la tutelle du père de famille, ou les mariages arrangés sont la norme. Lors de ces mariages, la nouvelle épouse quitte le clan de ses parents et rejoint celui de son époux; ce qui peut provoquer la disparition de clans entiers s'il y a beaucoup de naissances de filles en leur sein. De plus, seuls les descendants de sexe masculin peuvent assurer le culte des ancêtres, ce qui amène la société Han à privilégier la naissance et la survie des garçons aux dépens des filles. Selon les coutumes et la tradition confucéenne, toutes les filles et les femmes doivent, en théorie, obéir passivement à leurs parents de sexe masculins. Dans les faits, les mères ont un statut familial supérieur à celui de leurs fils et de nombreuses femmes sortent de leur domicile pour exercer différentes professions et ce en étant protégées par la loi contre ceux qui voudraient les en empêcher. Au plus haut sommet de l'état, l'impératrice jouit d'un statut supérieur à celui des parents mâles du clan de son époux. Enfin, si jamais l'empereur meurt sans avoir désigné de successeur, l'impératrice douairière peut choisir le successeur de son fils. The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of Imperial China divided into the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) periods, when the capital cities were located at Chang'an and Luoyang, respectively. It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor. The Han dynasty was an age of great economic, technological, cultural, and social progress in China. Its society was governed by an emperor who shared power with an official bureaucracy and semi-feudal nobility. Its laws, customs, literature, and education were largely guided by the philosophy and ethical system of Confucianism, yet the influence of Legalism and Daoism (from the previous Zhou dynasty) could still be seen. Members of the scholarly-gentry class who aspired to hold public office were required to receive a Confucian-based education. A new synthetic ideology of Han Confucianism was created when the scholar Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BCE) united the Confucian canon allegedly edited by Kongzi, or Confucius (551–479 BCE), with cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the Chinese five elements. Although the social status of nobles, officials, farmers, and artisan-craftsmen was considered above the station of the lowly registered merchant, wealthy and successful businessmen acquired huge fortunes which allowed them to rival the social prestige of even the most powerful nobles and highest officials. Slaves were at the bottom of the social order, yet they represented only a tiny portion of the overall population. Retainers attached themselves to the estates of wealthy landowners, while medical physicians and state-employed religious occultists could make a decent living. People of all social classes believed in various deities, spirits, immortals, and demons. While Han Daoists were organized into small groups chiefly concerned with achieving immortality through various means, by the mid 2nd century CE they formed large hierarchical religious societies that challenged imperial authority and viewed Laozi (fl. 6th century BCE) as a holy prophet. The typical Han-era Chinese household contained a nuclear family with an average of four to five members, unlike in later dynasties when multiple generations and extended family members commonly lived in the same household. Families were patrilineal, which made the father the supreme head of the house. Arranged marriages were the norm, while a new wife was expected to join the clan of her husband. Having sons over daughters was considered extremely important for the sake of carrying on ancestor worship. Although girls and women were expected by custom and Confucian tradition to behave passively towards their male relatives, mothers were given a familial status above that of their sons. Women also engaged in various professions in and outside of the home and were given protection under the law. The empress was superior in status to the male relatives of her consort clan, while the mother of the emperor—the empress dowager had the authority to override his decisions and choose his successor (if one had not been appointed before his death). Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) adalah dinasti kekaisaran kedua di Tiongkok. Pada masa ini, Tiongkok berhasil mencapai kemajuan ekonomi, teknologi, budaya, dan sosial. Masyarakatnya diperintah oleh kaisar yang berbagi kekuasaan dengan para pejabat/ahli dan bangsawan-bangsawan semi-feudal. Hukum, adat, sastra, dan pendidikan Dinasti Han dipandu oleh sistem filsafat dan etika Kong Hu Cu, walaupun pengaruh legalisme dan Taoisme masih dapat dirasakan. Anggota golongan elit terpelajar yang berangan-angan menjadi pejabat harus mendapatkan pendidikan Kong Hu Cu terlebih dahulu. Walaupun status sosial bangsawan, pejabat, petani, dan pengrajin dianggap lebih tinggi daripada para pedagang yang terdaftar oleh pemerintah, niagawan-niagawan sukses dapat menumpuk kekayaan yang membuat mereka dapat menyaingi martabat para bangsawan dan pejabat tertinggi. Sementara itu, budak dianggap sebagai golongan yang paling rendah, tetapi jumlah mereka hanya sedikit. Rumah tangga di Dinasti Han biasanya terdiri dari keluarga inti dengan empat hingga lima anggota keluarga, tidak seperti pada masa dinasti-dinasti berikutnya ketika rumah tangga dihuni oleh beberapa generasi sekaligus dan anggota keluarga besar. Keluarga di Han bersifat patrilineal. Perjodohan merupakan hal yang lumrah, dan istri yang baru menikah akan bergabung dengan klan suaminya. Masyarakat Han lebih menghargai anak lelaki daripada perempuan karena dianggap penting untuk meneruskan praktik pemujaan leluhur.
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