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- تاريخ روسيا (1892-1917) تحت قيادة القيصر نيكولاس الثاني (الذي حكم بين عامي 1894 و 1917)، تحولت روسيا شيئًا فشيئًا إلى دولة صناعية، قامعة في سبيل ذلك المعارضين السياسيين المنتمين إلى الوسط وإلى اليسار المتطرف. خلال تسعينيات القرن التاسع عشر، أدى التطور الصناعي إلى زيادة كبيرة في حجم الشريحة الوسطى المدنية والطبقة العاملة، ما أتاح الفرصة لظهور مناخ سياسي أكثر ديناميكية ونشوء أحزاب متطرفة. بسبب امتلاك الدولة والأجانب معظم الصناعات الروسية، كانت الطبقة العاملة الروسية أكثر قوة والبرجوازية أضعف في روسيا مقارنة مع الغرب. (ar)
- Under Tsar Nicholas II (reigned 1894–1917), the Russian Empire slowly industrializedrepressing opposition in the economic center and on the far-left. During the 1890s Russia's industrial development led to a large increase in the size of the urban middle class and of the working class, which gave rise to a more dynamic political atmosphere and the development of radical parties. Because the state and foreigners owned much of Russia's industry, the Russian working class was comparatively stronger and the Russian bourgeoisie comparatively weaker than in the West. The working class and the peasants became the first to establish political parties in Russia, because the nobility and the wealthy bourgeoisie were politically timid. During the 1890s and early 1900s, bad living- and working-conditions, high taxes and land hunger gave rise to more frequent strikes and agrarian disorders. These activities prompted the bourgeoisie of various nationalities in the Russian Empire to develop a host of different parties, both liberal and conservative. By 1914, 40% of Russian workers were employed in factories of 1,000 workers or more (32% in 1901). 42% worked in businesses of 100 to 1,000 workers and 18% in businesses of 100 workers or fewer (in 1914, the United States had equivalent figures of 18%, 47% and 35%, respectively). Politically, anti-establishment forces organized into competing parties. The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility, who believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarch, founded the Constitutional Democratic party or Kadets in 1905. Radical factions had their own parties. The workers in major cities revolted in 1905 with widespread strikes and mutinies. The Tsar barely kept control, promised an elective parliament (the Duma) and the revolt subsided. However, the Tsar then dissolved the Duma in 1906. He turned to Peter Stolypin (Prime Minister from 1906 to 1911) to help reform the huge, but sluggish, economy. Nicholas II's foreign policy centred on an alliance with France and involved increased meddling in Balkan affairs. Russia proclaimed a role for itself as military protector of Orthodox Christians, notably those in Serbia. Efforts to expand Russian power in the Far East led to a short war with Japan in 1904–1905, which ended in humiliating defeat for St Petersburg. The Russians entered into World War I in 1914 and, despite their victory in the war, liberal elements conducted the February Revolution in 1917 as radicals like Vladimir Lenin were funded by Germany to launch a coup, largely working through soviets in the factories and in the army. Although Russia was victorious in World War I, the new Soviet government gave away Russian land and the allies refused to honor the Constantinople Agreement. The Soviets made major concessions to the Germans despite winning, as Lenin and others were directly funded by the German Empire to launch the revolution in the middle of the war. (en)
- Siendo prácticamente los años que gobernó el zar Nicolás II, el siguiente artículo muestra los inicios de los partidos políticos en Rusia, el surgimiento del Partido Social-Revolucionario, las crisis internas post-guerra (guerra Ruso-Japonesa, Primera Guerra Mundial), y, finalmente, la abolición del zarismo con la imposición del gobierno comunista en 1917. (es)
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- تاريخ روسيا (1892-1917) تحت قيادة القيصر نيكولاس الثاني (الذي حكم بين عامي 1894 و 1917)، تحولت روسيا شيئًا فشيئًا إلى دولة صناعية، قامعة في سبيل ذلك المعارضين السياسيين المنتمين إلى الوسط وإلى اليسار المتطرف. خلال تسعينيات القرن التاسع عشر، أدى التطور الصناعي إلى زيادة كبيرة في حجم الشريحة الوسطى المدنية والطبقة العاملة، ما أتاح الفرصة لظهور مناخ سياسي أكثر ديناميكية ونشوء أحزاب متطرفة. بسبب امتلاك الدولة والأجانب معظم الصناعات الروسية، كانت الطبقة العاملة الروسية أكثر قوة والبرجوازية أضعف في روسيا مقارنة مع الغرب. (ar)
- Siendo prácticamente los años que gobernó el zar Nicolás II, el siguiente artículo muestra los inicios de los partidos políticos en Rusia, el surgimiento del Partido Social-Revolucionario, las crisis internas post-guerra (guerra Ruso-Japonesa, Primera Guerra Mundial), y, finalmente, la abolición del zarismo con la imposición del gobierno comunista en 1917. (es)
- Under Tsar Nicholas II (reigned 1894–1917), the Russian Empire slowly industrializedrepressing opposition in the economic center and on the far-left. During the 1890s Russia's industrial development led to a large increase in the size of the urban middle class and of the working class, which gave rise to a more dynamic political atmosphere and the development of radical parties. Because the state and foreigners owned much of Russia's industry, the Russian working class was comparatively stronger and the Russian bourgeoisie comparatively weaker than in the West. The working class and the peasants became the first to establish political parties in Russia, because the nobility and the wealthy bourgeoisie were politically timid. (en)
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