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- The Emirate of Bari was a short-lived Saracen state centred on the south Italian city of Bari from 847 to 871. It was the most lasting episode in the history of Islam in peninsular southern Italy. Bari first became the object of Arab or Berber raids in late 840 or early 841, when it was briefly occupied. According to Al-Baladhuri, Bari was conquered from the Byzantine Empire by Kalfün, a mirwah—perhaps a servant or escaped slave—of the Aghlabid Emir of Africa. Kalfün (Khalfun) was probably of Berber stock, possibly from the Emirate of Sicily originally. The conquest was seen by contemporary Muslims as unimportant, having been carried out by a minor figure without the support of any other Muslim state. Requests were sent, however, by Kalfün's successor, Mufarrag ibn Sallam, to the Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil, in Baghdad, and his provincial governor of Egypt for recognition of the conquest with the title of wali, a prefect ruling over a province of the Caliphate, which was granted. Mufarrag expanded Muslim influence and enlarged the territory of the emirate. The third and last emir of Bari was Sawdan, who came to power around 857 after the murder of his predecessor Mufarrag. He invaded the lands of the Lombard Principality of Benevento, forcing Prince Adelchis to pay tribute. In 864 he finally obtained the official investiture requested initially by Mufarrag. In the middle of the 860s, a Frankish monk named Bernard and two companions stopped in Bari on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. They successfully petitioned Sawdan for letters of safe-conduct all the way through Egypt and the Holy Land. According to the Itinerarium Bernardi, Bernard's record of the event, Bari, the civitatem Sarracenorum, had formerly belonged to the "Beneventans". The Hebrew Chronicle of Ahimaaz records that Sawdan, the last emir of Bari, ruled the city wisely and was on good terms with the eminent Jewish scholar Abu Aaron. Christian monastic chronicles, however, portray the emir as nequissimus ac sceleratissimus: "most impossible and wicked". Certainly Muslims raids on Christians (and Jews) did not cease during Sawdan's reign. There is evidence for high civilisation in Bari at this point. Giosuè Musca suggests that the emirate was a boon to the regional economy, and that during this time the slave trade, wine trade, and trade in pottery flourished. Under Sawdan the city of Bari was embellished with a mosque, palaces, and public works. In 859, Lambert I of Spoleto joined Gerard, count of the Marsi, Maielpoto, gastald of Telese, and Wandelbert, gastald of Boiano, to prevent Sawdan from re-entering Bari after a campaign against Capua and the Lavorno. Despite a bloody battle, the emir successfully entered his capital. The emirate of Bari lasted long enough to enter into relations with its Christian neighbours. According the Chronicon Salernitanum, ambassadors (legati) were sent to Salerno where they stayed in the episcopal palace, much to the dismay of the bishop. Bari also served as a refuge for at least one political rival of the Emperor Louis II, a man of Spoleto who fled to it during a revolt. In 865 Louis, perhaps pressured by the Church, always uncomfortable with a Muslim state in Italy's midst, issued a capitulary calling upon the fighting men of northern Italy to gather at Lucera in the spring of 866 for an assault on Bari. It is unknown, from contemporary sources, whether this force ever marched on Bari, but in the summer of that year the emperor was touring the Campania with his empress, Engelberga, and receiving strong urging from the Lombard princes—Adelchis of Benevento, Guaifer of Salerno, and Landulf II of Capua—to attack Bari again. It was not until the spring of 867 that Louis took action against the emirate. He immediately besieged Matera and Oria, recently conquered, and burnt the former. Oria was a prosperous locale before the Muslim conquest; Barbara Kreutz thus conjectures that Matera resisted Louis while Oria welcomed him: the former thus was razed. This may have severed communications between Bari and Taranto, the other pole of Muslim power in southern Italy. Louis established a garrison at Canosa on the frontier between Benevento and Bari, but retired to the former by March 868. It was probably at about this time that Louis entered into negotiations with the new Byzantine emperor, Basil I. A marriage between Louis's daughter and Basil's eldest son, Symbatios Constantine, was probably discussed in return for Byzantine naval assistance in the taking of Bari. The Chronicon Salernitanum inconsistently attaches the initiative for such talks to Louis and then Basil. The joint attack was projected for late in the summer of 869 and Louis remained at Benevento planning as late as June. The Byzantine fleet—of four hundred ships if the Annales Bertiniani are to be trusted—arrived under the command of Nicetas with the expectation that Louis would hand over his daughter immediately. This he refused to do, for no known reason, but perhaps because Nicetas had refused to recognise his imperial title, since Louis later refers in a letter to the commander's "insulting behaviour". Perhaps, however, the fleet simply arrived too late in autumn. In 870 the Bariot Muslims stepped up their raids, going so far as to ravage the Gargano Peninsula including the Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo. The Emperor Louis organised a response, fighting his way deep into Apulia and Calabria but bypassing major population centres like Bari or Taranto. A few towns were apparently freed of Muslim control and the various Muslim bands encountered were universally defeated. Probably encouraged by these successes, Louis attacked Bari with a ground force of Franks and Lombards and aided by a Croatian fleet (of Sclavini). In February 871 the citadel fell and Sawdan was captured and taken to Benevento in chains. The report found in the De Administrando Imperio of Constantine Porphyrogenitus that the Byzantines played a major role in the city's fall is probably a concoction.
- L'emirat de Bari fou un petit estat musulmà establert a la zona de Bari i la Pulla que va durar un quart del segle IX. Les primeres incursions musulmanes a Itàlia corresponen a un atac a la flota veneciana davant de Tàrent el 840 (segons els historiadors llatins el 841); al mateix temps es va atacar Bari, preludi de la instal·lació de l'emirat a la ciutat. La ciutat hauria estat ocupada però probablement només uns dies. Milicians musulmans van servir als prínceps Radelchis I (839-851) de Benevent i Sicone II (839-851) de Salern i dos aventurers coneguts pels noms llatinitzats de Apolaffar i Massar van dirigir les milícies musulmanes de Tàrent al servei de Benevent; es suposa que foren emirs de Tàrent (vers 840-845 i 845-850) i el primer va servir al príncep de Salern i el segon al de Benevent. L'agost del 846 un contingent sarraí va atacar Roma i va saquejar la basílica de Sant Pere. Vers el 845 o 846 Tàrent estava en mans dels musulmans. Segons al-Baladhuri, Bari fou conquerida als bizantins per Kalfün, un mirwah, un servidor o esclau alliberat de l'emir aglàbida segurament d'origen berber i procedent amb molta probabilitat de l'emirat de Sicília. La conquesta no es va considerar molt important i Kalfun no va rebre cap suport (o molt poc) d'altres estats musulmans. El successor de Kalfun Mufarrag ibn Sallam, només esmentat per les fonts llatines, va enviar una petició al califa abbàssida i al governador d'Egipte per ser reconegut com a valí governant Bari i la Pulla en nom del Califat, però de moment no va obtenir resposta. Va ampliar el territori musulmà a la Pulla. Mufarrag va morir assassinat vers el 857 i el va succeir Sawdan, un berber, que va envair territori del prínceps llombard de Benevent i va obligar a Adelchis a pagar tribut. El 864 va aconseguir ser reconegut com a valí pel califa abbàssida. Durant tot el seu govern va fer diverses expedicions i l'emirat fou un centre de civilització i riquesa, i probablement el comerç d'esclaus, de vi i de poteries es van generalitzar Sawdan va construir una mesquita, un palau i va fer algunes obres públiques. El 859, Lambert I d' Spoleto aliat a Gerard, compte de Marsi, Maielpoto, gastald de Telese, i Wandelbert, gastald de Boiano, van intentar impedir a Sawdan tronar a la seva capital després d'una expedició a Càpua i Lavorno; es va lliurar una batalla però l'emir va poder retornar sa i estalvi a la seva capital. Ambaixadors de Bari foren enviats a Salern. Un noble llombard, opositor a l'emperador Lluís II, que s'havia revoltat, es va refugiar a Bari. El 866 Lluís II, segurament pressionat per l'església, va organitzar un atac al emirat; les cròniques del seu temps no parlen de si va arribar a Bari, però si que se sap que a l'estiu del 866 l'emperador i l'emperadriu Engelberga eren a Campània on Adelchis de Benevent, Guaifer de Salern, i Landulf II de Càpua li demanaven atacar Bari. La primavera del 867 Lluís va atacar les forces musulmanes: Matera i Oria foren assetjades, i la primera arrasada i la segona ocupada potser perquè Matera va resistir i Oria no. L'emir de Bari estava segons es creu en contacte amb Tàrent, altre focus del poder musulmà. Lluís va establir una guarnició a Canosa a la frontera entre Benevent i Bari, però finalment es va retirar cap a Benevent el març del 868. En aquest temps es suposa que Lluís estava en negociacions amb l'emperador Basili I de Bizanci per un enllaç familiar entre una filla de l'emperador germànic i un fill del emperador bizantí anomenat Symbatios, enllaç del qual la conquesta de Bari seria la dot de la princesa. El Chronicon Salernitanum atribueix la iniciativa de les converses primer a Lluís i després a Basili, el que fa impossible saber de qui va sortir la idea, però el cert es que es va projectar un atac franc-llombard amb suport bizantí per l'estiu del 969. L'emperador oriental va enviar la flota sota comandament de Nicetes el 969; Lluís esperava a Benevent on es sap que era el juny del 969. El comandant bizantí va demanar la entrega de la princesa immediatament, i li fou refusada per causes desconegudes i la flota es va retirar. Es possible que el motiu fos que la flota grega hagués arribat massa tard, potser vers l'octubre. El 870 les musulmans de Bari van fer incursions fins a la península de Gargano incloent el santuari de Monte Sant'Angelo. L'emperador Lluís va organitzar la resposta i va atacar la Pulla i la Calàbria però deixant de banda les gran ciutats, Bari i Tàrent; algunes ciutats menors foren ocupades i diverses bandes de sarrains foren derrotades. Encoratjat per aquestos èxits Lluís va atacar Bari amb forces imperials (que incloïen molts llombards) i amb suport d'una flota dels esclavini (eslaus de la costa dàlmata) va conquerir la ciutadella el febrer del 871. Sawdan fou fet presoner i portat encadenat a Benevent
- L' Emirato di Bari fu un effimero emirato musulmano attivo nella cittadina di Bari, nel meridione italiano, dall'847 all'871. Esso fu il più rilevante insediamento islamico nella Penisola italica.
- Файл:Emperor Louis II before Bari. jpg Взятие Бари франко-ломбардскими войсками в 871 году Барийский эмират — мусульманское государство в Южной Италии с центром в Бари, существовавшее с 847 по 871 год. Наряду с Таранто, просуществовало дольше других мусульманских государств в континентальной Южной Италии, хотя тридцать лет его существования не сравнимы со ста десятью годами существования Сицилийского эмирата.
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