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- Edward Chace Tolman (1886 - 1999) was an American psychologist. He was most famous for his studies on behavioral psychology. Born in West Newton, Massachusetts, brother of CalTech physicist Richard Chace Tolman, Edward C. Tolman studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1915. Most of his career was spent at the University of California, Berkeley (from 1918 to 1954), where he taught psychology. Tolman is best known for his studies of learning in rats using mazes, and he published many experimental articles, of which his paper with Ritchie and Kalish in 1946 was probably the most influential. His major theoretical contributions came in his 1932 book, Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men, and in a series of papers in the Psychological Review, "The determinants of behavior at a choice point" (1938) and "Cognitive maps in rats and men" (1948), and "Principles of performance" (1955). Although Tolman was firmly behaviorist in his methodology, he was not a radical behaviorist like B. F. Skinner. As the title of his 1932 book indicates, he wanted to use behavioral methods to gain an understanding of the mental processes of humans and other animals. In his studies of learning in rats, Tolman sought to demonstrate that animals could learn facts about the world that they could subsequently use in a flexible manner, rather than simply learning automatic responses that were triggered off by environmental stimuli. In the language of the time, Tolman was an "S-S" (stimulus-stimulus), non-reinforcement theorist: he drew on Gestalt psychology to argue that animals could learn the connections between stimuli and did not need any explicit biologically significant event to make learning occur. This is known as latent learning. The rival theory, the much more mechanistic "S-R" (stimulus-response) reinforcement-driven view, was taken up by Clark L. Hull. A key paper by Tolman, Ritchie and Kalish in 1946 demonstrated that rats that had explored a maze that contained food while they were not hungry were able to run it correctly on the first trial when they entered it having now been made hungry. However, Hull and his followers were able to produce alternative explanations of Tolman's findings, and the debate between S-S and S-R learning theories became increasingly convoluted and sterile. Skinner's iconoclastic paper of 1950, entitled "Are theories of learning necessary?" persuaded many psychologists interested in animal learning that it was more productive to focus on the behavior itself rather than using it to make hypotheses about mental states. The influence of Tolman's ideas declined rapidly in the later 1950s and 1960s. However, his achievements had been considerable. His 1938 and 1955 papers, produced to answer Hull's charge that he left the rat "buried in thought" in the maze, unable to respond, anticipated and prepared the ground for much later work in cognitive psychology, as psychologists began to discover and apply decision theory - a stream of work that was recognised by the award of a Nobel prize to Daniel Kahneman in 2002. And his 1948 paper introduced the concept of a cognitive map, which has found extensive application in almost every field of psychology, frequently among scientists who have no idea that they are using ideas first formulated to explain the behavior of rats in mazes. Furthermore, when in the last quarter of the twentieth century animal psychologists took a cue from the success of human cognitive psychology, and began to renew the study of animal cognition, many of them turned to Tolman's ideas and to his maze techniques. Of the three great figures of animal psychology of the middle twentieth century, Tolman, Hull and Skinner, it can reasonably be claimed that it is Tolman's legacy that is currently the liveliest, certainly in terms of academic research. Tolman was much concerned that psychology should be applied to try and solve human problems, and in addition to his technical publications, he wrote a book called Drives Toward War. He was one of the senior professors whom the University of California sought to dismiss in the McCarthyite era of the early 1950s, because he refused to sign a loyalty oath - not because of any lack of felt loyalty to the United States but because it infringed on academic freedom. Tolman was a leader of the resistance of the oath, and when the Regents of the University of California sought to fire him, he sued. The resulting court case, Tolman v. Underhill, led to the California Supreme Court in 1955 overturning the oath and forcing the reinstatement of all those who had refused to sign it. In 1963, at the insistence of the then President of the University of California Clark Kerr, the University named its newly constructed Education and Psychology faculty building at Berkeley "Tolman Hall" in his honor; his widow was present at the dedication ceremony. His portrait hangs in the entrance hall of the building.
- Edward Chace Tolman war ein US-amerikanischer Psychologe. Er wurde bekannt durch seine Arbeiten auf dem Gebiet der Lerntheorie und gilt als ein Wegbereiter des Kognitivismus.
- Edward Chace Tolman, est un psychologue américain. Il s'intéressa essentiellement aux problèmes de l'apprentissage dans le cadre du béhaviorisme. Le comportement, soutient Tolman, ne peut être réduit au schéma « stimulus-réponse ». L'organisme n'est pas seulement « réactionnel »; il agit en fonction d'une visée qui lui est propre. Dans sa théorie, Tolman tient compte du béhaviorisme, du fonctionnalisme et de la psychologie de la forme. Son idée, c'est que l'on ne peut se passer de la notion de « dessein », de « but poursuivi », ni chez l'homme ni chez l'animal. Tolman a également développé le concept de « carte cognitive ».
- Fu il più noto neocomportamentista nonché precursore del cognitivismo, noto per i suoi studi sull'apprendimento nei topi in scatole sperimentali apposite (le così dette labirinti di apprendimento). La matrice culturale di Tolman è di stampo comportamentista: rifiutava l'introspezione, considerazione del comportamento manifesto come oggetto di studio. Anche se da Watson (il fondatore del comportamentismo) si discosta nettamente, Tolman si autodefinisce studioso del comportamento molare (definendo lo studio watsoniano comportamento molecolare) e del comportamento finalizzato (definendo quello di Watson comportamento meccanico).
- エドワード・トールマン（Edward Chase Tolman, 1886年4月14日 - 1959年11月19日）はアメリカの心理学者。マサチューセッツ州ウェスト・ニュートン出身。 巨視的立場から目的論的行動主義を唱え、行動主義心理学に媒介変数を導入した。彼は、すべての行動は目標に方向づけられているとし、学習は目的に関わる高度に客観的な証拠事実であると述べている。そして、行動は単なる刺激(独立変数)と反応(従属変数)の直接的な結合(S－R)ではなく、その間に媒介変数としての内的過程が介在するとして、S-O-Rと修正した。また、動物の行動を研究し、認知的な学習に注目した。 ハルやスキナーと共に新行動主義を代表する心理学者とされるが、トールマンの立場はゲシュタルト心理学とも親和性を持つものであり、のちの認知心理学の誕生を準備するものであった。 新行動主義心理学者は他にガスリー、ハル、スキナーらがいる。 波多野誼余夫ら編集の「教授・学習過程論」（放送大学大学院教材、2004年）の127ページには、永野重史により、トールマンは『動物とヒトにおける目的行動』という本の扉に「ネズミにこの本を捧げる」と書いた程ヒトではなくネズミに偏っていたというエピソードが紹介されている。
- Edward C. Tolman – psycholog amerykański, twórca koncepcji behawioryzmu celowościowego. W 1922roku wystąpił z najpełniejszą krytyką behawioryzmu J.B. Watsona, ponieważ przeprowadził szereg eksperymentów behawiorystycznych i zauważył ich blędność. Zaproponował własną teorię motywacji i wprowadził do psychologii uczenia się pojęcie popędu. Wprowadził do psychologii koncepcję behawioryzmu celowościowego, według której powinna zajmować się badaniem całego działania totalnego organizmu z punktu widzenia celu, do którego dąży jednostka.
- Edward Chace Tolman foi um psicólogo norte-americano. estudou no Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), tendo-se doutorado, em 1915, na Universidade de Harvard. Os seus trabalhos enquadram-se na corrente behaviorista, considerando contudo que a proposta de explicação do comportamento apresentada (estímulo-resposta) era muito redutora. Assim dever-se-ia ter em conta as intenções e objectivos do sujeito na explicação de um comportamento. Recusava a ideia de que a aprendizagem resultava apenas de tentativas e erros ou era aleatória. A aprendizagem era intencional, dirigida para objectivos - daí a sua concepção ser designada por behaviorismo intencional. De entre as suas obras pode-se destacar: Purposive behavior in animals and men, publicada em 1932 e Drives toward War
- 爱德华·托尔曼（Edward Chace Tolman，1886年 - 1959年）是一位美国心理学家。他以研究行为心理学著称。 1886年，爱德华·托尔曼出生在美国马萨诸塞州的西牛顿，是加州理工学院物理学家理查德·托尔曼（Richard Chace Tolman）的兄弟。爱德华·托尔曼就读于麻省理工学院，1915年获得哈佛大学哲学博士学位。从1918年一直到1954年，爱德华·托尔曼的大半生都在柏克莱加州大学度过，在那里讲授心理学。 托尔曼最著名的是他对小白鼠走迷宫的研究，发表了许多实验报告，其中最著名的是1946年他与Ritchie、Kalish 合作完成的论文。他在理论上主要的贡献有：1932年出版的书籍《动物与人类的有意行为》，以及在《心理学评论》上发表的一系列论文《The determinants of behavior at a choice point》（1938年）、《小白鼠和人类的认知地图》（1948年）、《Principles of performance》（1955年）。 尽管托尔曼在方法论上是一位坚定的行为主义者，但是他不是像伯尔赫斯·弗雷德里克·斯金纳那样的激进行为主义者。正如《动物与人类的有意行为》一书的标题所显示的，他试图用行为的方法来获得对人类与动物的心理过程的理解。在他对小白鼠学习的研究中，托尔曼寻求论证动物能够学习关于世界的事实 它们能够后来在更灵活的意义上使用，而不是仅仅学习环境刺激后产生自动反应。用当时的语言，托尔曼是一位"S-S" (刺激-刺激)，而不是reinforcement理论家： 1946年，托尔曼与Ritchie、Kalish 合作完成了一篇关键性的论文，论证小白鼠在探究一个内有食物的迷宫时， 此外，当20世纪末动物心理学家在人类认知心理学领域取得成功，并重新开始对动物认知的研究时，他们中许多人转向托尔曼思想和他的迷宫技术。在20世纪中叶三位动物心理学大师——托尔曼、赫尔和斯金纳中，目前托尔曼的理论在学术研究方面最有活力。 托尔曼非常关心心理学应当应用于解决人类问题，除了专业出版物之外，他还写过一本书《Drives Toward War》。他是在1950年代初麦卡锡主义时期被加州大学准备解雇的几位高级教授之一，因为他拒绝签署一份忠诚誓言，不是因为他缺乏对美国的忠诚，而是因为这破坏了学术自由。托尔曼是反对宣誓的领袖之一。加州大学董事会准备解雇他的时候，托尔曼提出控诉。经过法庭诉讼，最后加州高等法院在1955年判决推翻誓言，强制让所有拒绝签字者复职。1963年，由于加利福尼亚大学校长克拉克·克尔（Clark Kerr）的坚持，伯克莱加州大学将新建的教育与心理学系大楼命名为“托尔曼堂”以纪念他；他的遗孀出席了命名仪式。他的肖像悬挂在这座建筑的门廊处。
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- Edward Chace Tolman (1886 - 1999) was an American psychologist. He was most famous for his studies on behavioral psychology. Born in West Newton, Massachusetts, brother of CalTech physicist Richard Chace Tolman, Edward C. Tolman studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1915. Most of his career was spent at the University of California, Berkeley (from 1918 to 1954), where he taught psychology.
- Edward Chace Tolman war ein US-amerikanischer Psychologe. Er wurde bekannt durch seine Arbeiten auf dem Gebiet der Lerntheorie und gilt als ein Wegbereiter des Kognitivismus.
- Edward Chace Tolman, est un psychologue américain. Il s'intéressa essentiellement aux problèmes de l'apprentissage dans le cadre du béhaviorisme. Le comportement, soutient Tolman, ne peut être réduit au schéma « stimulus-réponse ». L'organisme n'est pas seulement « réactionnel »; il agit en fonction d'une visée qui lui est propre. Dans sa théorie, Tolman tient compte du béhaviorisme, du fonctionnalisme et de la psychologie de la forme.
- Fu il più noto neocomportamentista nonché precursore del cognitivismo, noto per i suoi studi sull'apprendimento nei topi in scatole sperimentali apposite (le così dette labirinti di apprendimento). La matrice culturale di Tolman è di stampo comportamentista: rifiutava l'introspezione, considerazione del comportamento manifesto come oggetto di studio.
- Edward C. Tolman – psycholog amerykański, twórca koncepcji behawioryzmu celowościowego. W 1922roku wystąpił z najpełniejszą krytyką behawioryzmu J.B. Watsona, ponieważ przeprowadził szereg eksperymentów behawiorystycznych i zauważył ich blędność. Zaproponował własną teorię motywacji i wprowadził do psychologii uczenia się pojęcie popędu.
- Edward Chace Tolman foi um psicólogo norte-americano. estudou no Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), tendo-se doutorado, em 1915, na Universidade de Harvard. Os seus trabalhos enquadram-se na corrente behaviorista, considerando contudo que a proposta de explicação do comportamento apresentada (estímulo-resposta) era muito redutora. Assim dever-se-ia ter em conta as intenções e objectivos do sujeito na explicação de um comportamento.
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